लाली गुराँस

Machhapuchre

मितज्यू् मितिनी

ज्वालामुखि

महिला अधिकार

चियाबारी

उद्दार गरिएको पानी जहाज

Nepal

Family

effect

Climate Change

मेरा तीन कविताहरु

१.मेहनतकसलाई सन्देस

हुल हुल हिड्नु परेको छ
साँचो खोज्नकोलागि
जहाँ तिम्रो विश्वास कैदी बनेर रहेको छ।
एक्लै एक्लै हिड्नु परेको छ
विश्वास खोज्नकोलागि
जहाँ तिम्रो अधिकार खात लागेर रहेको छ।
विश्वास अडेको छ
तिम्रा सवल छातिहरुमा
कठोर मुड्किले फोड्न सक्ने छैनन्।
कलिलो युवाको संज्ञा दिने
चीसो सिरेठो आउने छ
मटु कमाउने जाडो बनेर
वास्तवमा,
तिमी त विस्वास लिएकाछौ
सुनौला विहानी आउँछ भनेर
विश्वास आशाको दियो रहेछ
जाँगर भित्रको जोश रहेछ
त्यसैले,
चुसाहाहरुले गालि दिंदा
साथीहरुले ताली दिंदा
युवाहरुले नवज्योति वाली दिंदा
उकुस मुकुसिएका उत्सुकताहरु
गर्जिरहेथे कालो वादलसंग
दोषी मादलसंग।
अव त,
उ पनि साथ दिने छ
हातमा हात राखेर
पसिना चुहाउँदै
मेहनतको सागार वगाउदै
हिम्मतको पर्खाल लगाउदै।
हुल हुल हिड्नु परेको छ
साँचो खोज्नकोलागि
जहाँ तिम्रो विश्वास कैदी वनेर रहेको छ।
२.“मनको साथी नपाए सम्म हुदैन रमाइलो”

मिरमिर पछि उज्यालो भयो भएन घमाइलो
यो मनको साथी नपाए सम्म हुदैन रमाइलो।
कुहिरो ढुँडी उडेर गयो आएन वसन्त
मनको त्रास वढेर आयो भएन एकान्त।
मनका कुरा हिमाल माथी हावाझैं चिसिए
एकान्त मनको सितल पवन राँकोमै मिसिए।
तापनि मेरो छल्केको मुटु सगरमाथामा
डुबुल्किमार्न खोजेको हुन्छ त्यो म्रित सागरमा।
म मस्किदिन्छु ति तिम्रो हाँसो मुस्केकै भरमा
ति हाँसो उडे त्यो सेतो ढुडि उडेझैं बगरमा।
म झस्किदिन्छु ढुङ्गाको चट्टान पुरानो चिहानमा
फर्केर फेरि आँउछु भन सुनौलो विहानमा।
खुसिले भन्छु यो मनभित्र आउनेछ घमाइलो
मनको साथी नपाए सम्म हुदैन रमाइलो।।
३।“शरदको रातमा टल्केकी माछापुच्छ्रेलाई देख्दा”
भदौको कडा घामले पोलेर पो हो कि
उ पछ्यौरा ओडेकी छ
अविरल वर्षाले थाकेर पो हो कि
उ बादले काउली फुलाएकी छ
भेल र बाढी भागेर पो हो कि
उ स्वच्छ फेवामा पौडेकि छ
शरदको आगमन देखेर पो हो कि
उसको शीर झलमलाएको छ।
शरदको परिवेस भित्र
फाँटहरु झुलेका छन
टाकुराहारु फुलेका छन
गगन खुलेको छ
रबि लुकेको छ
शशि झुल्केको छ।
उ त चाँदीको पर्खाल वनी
अन्नपूर्णको काखमा टल्केकि छ
पोखराको शीर वनी
आगन्तुकको तीर वनी,
सायद भदौको कडा घामले पोलेर पो हो कि
उ पछ्यौरा ओडेकि छ।
(केशवराज घिमिरे)

केशवराज घिमिरे
खैरेनीटार,तनहुँ।

Ku

Bhujikot in the back

ITK

PRB 03-38E

Indigenous Traditional Knowledge

and Intellectual Property Rights

Prepared by:

Tonina Simeone

Political and Social Affairs Division

17 March 2004

(210.78 Kb, 11 pages)

Table of Contents

Introduction

Traditional knowledge encompasses the beliefs, knowledge, practices,

innovations, arts, spirituality, and other forms of cultural experience and

expression that belong to indigenous communities worldwide. Since the adoption

of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948,( ) intellectual property has

been considered a fundamental human right of all peoples. Only recently,

however, has the need to protect, preserve and provide for the fair use of

indigenous intellectual property – traditional knowledge – entered the domestic

and international debate on intellectual property rights. Of particular concern to

indigenous peoples has been the unlicensed use by non-indigenous groups, such

as corporations, of traditional knowledge that has been developed over centuries.

How Does Indigenous Traditional Knowledge

Differ from Western Science?

Unlike the western custom of disseminating knowledge through publication,

traditional knowledge systems exist principally in the form of songs, proverbs,

stories, folklore, community laws, common or collective property and inventions,

practices and rituals. The knowledge is transmitted through specific cultural

mechanisms such as those just listed, and often through designated community

knowledge holders, such as elders. The knowledge is considered collective to

the community, not private to one individual or small group.

Differences Between Western Science and Traditional

Knowledge( )

Factor

Western

Science

Traditional

Knowledge

Approach Compartmental Holistic

How

communicated

Written Oral

How taught Lectures,

theories

Observations,

experience

PDF

Disclaimer

Introduction

How Does Indigenous Traditional Knowledge Differ from Western Science?

Why Protect Traditional Knowledge?

How to Protect Traditional Knowledge

Limitations of the Intellectual Property Rights Regime in Protecting Traditional

Knowledge

International Initiatives to Protect Traditional Knowledge

Selected References

Endnotes

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free”

Spiritual,

social values

Often, indigenous traditional knowledge systems contain a rich understanding of

plant, crop and tree species, medicines, animal breeds, and local ecological and

biological resources. They may also include useful technologies and adaptations

to local environments. Traditional knowledge is not static, nor trapped in amber; it

is often in current use. Sophisticated and adaptive, it evolves and responds to

changes in the physical and social environment.

Why Protect Traditional Knowledge?

For indigenous peoples such as Aboriginal Canadians, the rationale for protecting

traditional knowledge centres on questions of fundamental justice and the ability

to protect, preserve and control one’s cultural heritage.( ) There is also the

concomitant right to receive a fair return on what these communities have

developed: many areas of traditional knowledge have potentially lucrative

applications.

Non-indigenous people also have a strong incentive to ensure the fair use of

traditional knowledge, because such knowledge has much to offer modern

society. It is being used increasingly to assist policy-making in many areas:

food and agriculture; culture; human rights; resource management, sustainable

development and the conservation of biological diversity; health; trade and

economic development. In some parts of Canada, for example, traditional

ecological knowledge is being married to western scientific practices to improve

environmental impact assessment processes and resource management, as well

as genetic and medical research.( )

However, as the awareness and use of traditional knowledge continue to grow in

mainstream policy and economic sectors, so do the incidences of its misuse and

misappropriation. Image rights are violated when Aboriginal designs are

reproduced for sale without authorization or recompense. Some research and

pharmaceutical companies have applied and profited from traditional knowledge of

natural resources, such as medicinal plants, without offering any compensation to

the Aboriginal communities that are custodians of such knowledge.( )

How to Protect Traditional Knowledge

Aboriginal groups have highlighted five principal areas of concern with regard to

the protection of traditional knowledge and practices:( )

Unauthorized copying of works by Aboriginal groups and communities

Infringement of copyright of individual artists

Appropriation of Aboriginal themes and images

Culturally inappropriate use of Aboriginal images and styles by non-

Aboriginal creators

Expropriation of traditional knowledge without compensation

Protection of traditional knowledge has taken two approaches. Some countries

have enacted specific legislation establishing minimum standards for the

recognition and protection of traditional knowledge. In most jurisdictions,

however, traditional communities have employed existing legal tools (e.g.,

contracts, licensing agreements) and intellectual property rights law to try to

protect their traditional knowledge – albeit with mixed success.

Establishing databases as a tool for the defensive( ) protection of traditional

knowledge has received increasing attention. In June 2002, the World Intellectual

Property Organization examined the usefulness of TK databases as a means to

defeat claims to patent traditional knowledge by parties other than the holders

themselves.( ) While there appears to be considerable support for this option,

there is also considerable concern regarding “costs, access and use of the

database, and the protection of the contents of it.”( ) The advantages and

difficulties of using such databases require further discussion and debate. The

Tokyo-based United Nations University has been strongly critical of TK databases

and has recommended that, unless these databases are confidential repositories

of TK, they will do little to prevent the piracy of that knowledge.( )

In Canada, effective domestic legislation that clearly protects indigenous

traditional knowledge has not yet been adopted. It falls directly upon Aboriginal

communities, therefore, to ensure necessary measures are taken to protect their

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4

5

6

7

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www2.parl.gc.ca/…/prb0338-e.htm 2/5communities, therefore, to ensure necessary measures are taken to protect their

traditional knowledge.( ) While Aboriginal communities have historically made

limited use of Canadian intellectual property law( ) to protect their tradition-

based creations, there are a number of cases where it has been used

successfully.( )

Limitations of the Intellectual Property Rights Regime

in Protecting Traditional Knowledge

The difficulty experienced by indigenous peoples in trying to protect their

traditional knowledge under intellectual property (IP) rights law stems mainly from

its failure to satisfy the requirements for protection under existing IP law. For

example, intellectual property must be new, original, innovative or distinctive to

qualify for protection. These requirements make it difficult for traditional

knowledge – generally handed down from generation to generation – to obtain IP

protection.

Moreover, from an Aboriginal perspective, the emphasis of the existing western

intellectual property rights regime on individual proprietary rights does not address

the collective nature of traditional knowledge. Because western IP law is based

on individual property ownership, its aims are often incompatible with, if not

detrimental to, those of traditional communities. For many traditional

communities, intellectual property is a means of developing and maintaining group

identity and survival, rather than promoting individual economic gain.

Another key concern shared by indigenous peoples worldwide is that the present

intellectual property rights regime favours multinationals and other non-indigenous

interests. Where IP protection may apply, the prohibitive costs of registering and

defending a patent or other intellectual property right effectively limit its availability

to the vast majority of indigenous communities, primarily in developing countries.

In this way, the existing intellectual property rights regime is seen to help

corporate interests and entrepreneurs lay claim to indigenous knowledge without

appropriate acknowledgement or compensation for the communities who have

developed that knowledge.

International Initiatives to Protect Traditional Knowledge

The importance of protecting and preserving indigenous traditional knowledge has

been recognized in several international instruments, including the Universal

Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on Biological Diversity,( ) the draft

United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples,( ) the

International Labour Organization Convention No. 168( ) and the International

Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.( )

The Rio Declaration (known as Agenda 21) and the Convention on Biological

Diversity adopted at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, emphasize

the need for governments to “respect, preserve and maintain knowledge,

innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities” and encourage

the right of traditional communities to share in the economic and social benefits

“arising from the utilization of such knowledge, innovations and practices.”

A number of United Nations agencies are also involved in addressing the

protection of traditional knowledge under the existing intellectual property rights

system. The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is responsible for

various activities promoting the protection of indigenous intellectual property

worldwide. Specifically, WIPO has conducted a number of studies on the role of

the intellectual property system in protecting traditional knowledge.( )

In October 2000, member states of WIPO (including Canada) established an

Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources,

Traditional Knowledge and Folklore (IGC). The IGC acts as an international forum

for debate and dialogue concerning the interplay between intellectual property and

traditional knowledge, genetic resources and traditional cultural expressions

(folklore).

Selected References

Hansen, Stephen A., and Justin W. VanFleet, for the American Association for

the Advancement of Science (AAAS). Traditional Knowledge and Intellectual

Property. AAAS, Washington, D.C., 2003.

Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. A Community Guide to Protecting

Indigenous Knowledge. Ottawa, 2001.

Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. Intellectual Property and Aboriginal People:

A Working Paper. Ottawa, 1999.

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14

15

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17

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www2.parl.gc.ca/…/prb0338-e.htm 3/5World Intellectual Property Organization, Intergovernmental Committee on

Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore.

Fifth Session. Geneva, 7 15 July 2003.

World Intellectual Property Organization. Roundtable on Intellectual Property and

Traditional Knowledge. Geneva, 1-2 November 1999.

Endnotes

1. Everyone has the right freely to participate in

the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the

arts and to share in scientific advancement and

its benefits.

2. Everyone has the right to the protection of the

moral and material interests resulting from any

scientific, literary or artistic production of which

he is the author.

1. Article 27 of the Declaration provides that:

2. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, A Community Guide to Protecting

Indigenous Knowledge, Ottawa, 2001, p. 4.

3. The Assembly of First Nations position on traditional knowledge is

contained in its .

4. In Nunavut, traditional ecological knowledge is given equal weight to

western science by the Nunavut Impact Review Board when making

decisions about development, ecosystems and traditional culture. In

addition, in 1997, the Government of the Northwest Territories adopted a

policy incorporating traditional knowledge into government decisions and

actions where appropriate. The policy applies to all departments and

agencies of the Northwest Territories.

5. Until very recently, for instance, an American citizen, Loren Miller, held the

patent for the Amazonian plant ayahuasca, intending to explore its

medicinal value in cancer treatment and psychotherapy. The plant plays

an important medicinal and religious role in the history and tradition of the

peoples of the Amazon. Because local Amazon communities did not

previously document the plant according to western intellectual property

standards, it met the novelty criteria to be patented in the United States.

6. World Intellectual Property Organization, Roundtable on Intellectual

Property and Traditional Knowledge, WIPO/IPTK/RT/99/3, paper prepared

by Michael Blakeney, October 1999, p. 4.

7. The term “defensive protection” refers to measures aimed at preventing the

acquisition of intellectual property rights over traditional knowledge by

parties other than the traditional knowledge holders. In contrast, positive

protection refers to the use of intellectual property rights or the

development of new types of rights providing for the affirmative protection of

traditional knowledge.

8. World Intellectual Property Organization,

,

document prepared for the Third Session of the Intergovernmental

Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional

Knowledge and Folklore (Geneva, 13-21 June 2002), 10 May 2002.

9. Ibid., p. 3.

10. Ottawa Citizen, “Researchers Blast ‘Biopiracy’ of Natives’ Medicinal

Knowledge,” 19 February 2004.

11. In 1999, the federal government produced an

of most relevance to Aboriginal peoples.

12. The (CIPO) administers the

intellectual property system in Canada and disseminates intellectual

property information.

13. In 1999, for example, the Snuneymuxw First Nation used the Trademarks

Act to prevent the unauthorized reproduction of ancient rock-painting

images (petroglyphs) of great religious significance to the community. The

Copyright Act has also been used by Aboriginal artists to protect their

artistic and literary creations, including the sculptures of Inuit artists, Haida

jewellery, and wood carvings of Pacific Coast artists.

14. Article 8(j) of the Convention on Biological Diversity provides that:

Resolution No. 27/2003

Inventory of Existing Online

Databases Containing Traditional Knowledge Documentation Data

overview of Canadian

intellectual property law

Canadian Intellectual Property Office

25-12-2009 Indigenous Traditional Knowledge and I…

www2.parl.gc.ca/…/prb0338-e.htm 4/5Each Contracting Party shall, as far as

possible and as appropriate: Subject to its

national legislation, respect, preserve and

maintain knowledge, innovations and practices

of indigenous and local communities

embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the

conservation and sustainable use of biological

diversity and promote their wider application

with the approval and involvement of the

holders of such knowledge, innovations and

practices and encourage the equitable sharing

of the benefits arising from the utilization of

such knowledge, innovations and practices.

Indigenous peoples are entitled to the

recognition of the full ownership, control and

protection of their cultural and intellectual

property. They have the right to special

measures to control, develop and protect their

sciences, technologies and cultural

manifestations, including human and other

genetic resources, seeds, medicines,

knowledge of the properties of fauna and flora,

oral traditions, literatures, designs and visual

and performing arts.

The rights of the peoples concerned to the

natural resources pertaining to their lands shall

be specially safeguarded. These rights include

the right of these peoples to participate in the

use, management and conservation of these

resources.

The States Parties to the present Covenant

recognize the right of everyone:

a. To take part in cultural life

b. To enjoy the benefits of scientific

progress and its applications;

c. To benefit from the protection of the

moral and material interests

resulting from scientific, literary or

artistic production of which he is

the author.

15. Article 29 of the Draft Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples

provides that:

16. Article 15(1) of the International Labour Organization Convention No. 168

provides that:

17. Article 15 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural

Rights states that:

18. These can be accessed on-line. reports

Top of Document

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Buddhism and Education

Buddhist Philosophy and Education
Back Ground:
Buddhist Philosophy is a middle way philosophy based on the teaching of Siddhartha Gautam, Founder of Buddhism. It is said as the middle way philosophy in the sense that it doesn’t have recognition with god, soul, spiritualism and re-birth. It doesn’t regard the soul as the central point. But a large number of people have taken it as a religion and following it.It is outcome of Hinduism. In Hinduism one has to go Jungle to get salvation or from suffering, where people stay for long time without eating with hard life. That is why Buddha went to Jungle and did same practice, he could not get anything. After eating rice pudding by a Vikchhu to Buddha, he was enlighten. To reduce Vikkriti this philosophy had been starting.
Regarding the historical background of its origin, Gautam Buddha-Siddhartha Gautam is the founder of this philosophy. He was the prince of Kapilvastu Kingdom in about 563 B.C. and up to his 16 years he was given education in policy of state and also in Military science. He was married and had a son too.
One day while he was taken to various places in the city in the chariot. In this process, he saw an old man(वृद्द), an ailing person(रोगी) and a dead body(मृत शरीर). These things made him sad and worried. So, for seeking deliverance from birth and death and diseases, he left his family and went to some spiritual guides. Ultimately he got enlightened after having long meditation under Bodhi tree. Then, he started preaching his sermons different parts of the world. Later one some people started to follow it as Buddhism as a religion and some as a philosophy.
Buddhism is one of the most remarkable developments in south Asia. It is an offshoot of the later Vedic thought. It came into prominence when during the course of time, several ills crept into Hinduism.
Buddha is said to be the 9th incarnation of the cosmic Deity Vishnu. Gautam Buddha has laid great importance on human conduct and has avoided reference to metaphysics which he rather considered to be superfluous.
Buddhist philosophy is very simple. In fact it is a way of life which must be lived in simplicity and purity. This philosophy is mainly based on the ‘Four Noble Truths ‘given below:
Four Noble Truths
1. Life is Suffering:
According to this truth, all existence involves suffering. The world is full of sufferings. Sickness and death are what they are; human life is impermanent and transient. The pain associated with those and other parts of life is due to a subjective dislocation, an attitude that takes things to be different. So, suffering is the ultimate truth of human that can’t be avoided. Mainly human sufferings are of 5 types: related to body, related to ideas or thoughts, related to emotions, related to feelings, related to perceptions. For example- Birth, sickness, old age, death, desire, want of something, want to be something, want to get something, pain , grief, sorrow, despair, love, family, relation etc, all are sufferings from which any way, we suffer, sometimes we have then we suffer, and sometimes we don’t have , then we suffer.
2. There are causes of suffering- self centered craving
There is a cause for a person’s miseries which is attached or misplaced desire rooted in ignorance and the cause is within itself. The main cause of sufferings is the need to refer all things to ourselves. According to Buddha, the body, perception, feeling, impulses and thoughts are indeed real. There are constantly changing conditions of existence. What is unreal is the linking of these conditions to the notion of a ‘self’. Thus, for Buddha, Preoccupations with ‘me’, ‘myself’ and ‘I’ is the cause of all human sufferings. One must overcome” subjectivity” and self concern in order to obtain release from suffering, peace or Nirvana. Self-preoccupation is a self-centered sleepiness where in the real world is never able to penetrate past the self-constructed dream world- the idiosyncratic world of my interest, my god, my needs, my goals, my friends, my failure, my success, my religion and so on. The real world is clear, transparent light; the self is a paintbrush or a colored glass that tints everything.
So, we must have emptiness like a clear empty tranquil sky. It should be empty room and everyone can enter then and completely free from Self-preoccupation.
3. Miseries can be wiped off (one must bring an end to self-centered craving)
According to this 3rd truth, all miseries can be wiped off which is the state of Nirvana. For this, to be free from any kind of miseries mentioned above, one must stop referring all things to oneself. One must see things as they really are, not simply as they are for us. So, self centered striving is an obstacle that makes us attached to the sufferings and doesn’t let us come out from this and it’s an obstacle to the discovery and release of this universal life.
4. The way to cease craving is to follow the eightfold way or path:
According to this noble truth, one can be free from any kind of suffering by following a path known as the Noble Eightfold Path which includes right -views, action , intention, speech, livelihood, effort, mindfulness and concentration.
The Noble Eightfold Path
1. Right view (Samyak dristi सम्यक दृष्टि):
It includes the knowledge of misery, the origin of misery, the cessation of misery and the path leading to the cessation of misery. In other words we can say it is the acceptance of the four noble truths which are essential for getting Nirvana.
2. Right intention (Samyak Sankalpa सम्यक संकल्प):
It includes renounce sexual pleasure, to have malice towards none, to be harsh to no being. Similarly, it means to be dedicated himself wholeheartedly to overcoming the dislocation of self-centered craving. One must not let his heart wander from the path.
3. Right speech (Samyak Vak सम्यक बक):
It is giving up falsehood, backbiting, harsh language and frivolous talk. It suggests guarding over our speech, to avoid lies and dishonesty and to cease from unkind speech.
4. Right Action (Samyak karma सम्यक कर्म):
It suggests that one must examine his behavior, determine whether each action is selfish or self less. One must practice other-centered rather than self-centered actions. Moreover, one must obey such precepts as: do not steal, do not lie, do not kill, do not drink intoxicants, and do not be unchaste.
5. Right livelihood (Samyak Aajiv सम्यक आजिव):
According to this, one must not engage in any occupation that opposes or distracts one from the path. For example, since all life is sacred, one may not become a butcher. So, select such kind of occupations so that no one will suffer from your profession.
6. Right effort (Samyak Vyayam सम्यक ब्यायम):
To avoid\abandon existing evil qualities and to follow good qualities. One must not be over jealous and run the risk of burning oneself out and abandoning the way altogether. Rather, one should entertain good thoughts and to avoid bad thoughts.
7. Right mindfulness (samyak smriti सम्यक स्मृति)
It is to make very clear up mind, clean like the dust off the mirror and having very clear observation. we are empty when we are free from of bias, concerns , prejudice, preferences etc. The empty heart has room for all. It is like the clear, empty, tranquil sky where birds can fly freely. It is related to forgetting self.
8. Right contemplation(Samyak Samadhi सम्यक समाधि):
This is similar to Rajyog in Hinduism. Through self-discipline and rigorous meditation, one gradually overcomes self-centered ways of thinking. In the advanced stages, one learns to concentrate all of one’s consciousness on a single object- perhaps the flame of a candle. It is to control the senses and mind. This is the readiness for Nirvana. By concentration, one can clear the self, such as my things, my desires, and my thoughts. There is room now for everything. Nirvana is the empty room that makes room for all things, the heart that is attached to nothing and is therefore ready to love all things.


Teacher:
The teacher of the Buddhist philosophy was like the ancient Hindu system. Students used to serve their teachers by all their means. Teachers here in the Buddhist philosophy also were respected highly. Teachers used to teach as many students as they could cope with.
Aim of education:
The aim of education was to influence the younger sections of the society according to the Buddhist thoughts. Secondary aim was to train monks and nuns for the purpose. Therefore, the system has missionary aim. However, the missionary schools admitted gradually even the girls.
Curriculum:
Buddhist system developed a curriculum around Buddhist religion. However, gradually it also included comparative study of Hinduism and Jainism. But the basic foundation of curriculum was the tripitak. The curriculum which initially included theology, philosophy, and logic was gradually extended to Sanskrit literature, astronomy, astrology, philosophy, medicine, law, political science, administration, music, art and technical education concerning so many trades. Thus , the curriculum of Buddhist university was almost as much versatile and varied as any of the modern university, therefore, the institution used to attract students not only from all parts of India but also from distant countries such as Korea, China and Tibet.
Educational implication:
Buddhist education got a great importance as Vihars admitted students from all castes, classes and faces. This is very important point that we can take that there should not be any kind of discrimination in education process. Similarly, merit was the basis of admission which is also very good points. Either Sanskrit or local popular language was used as the medium of instruction. So, ordinary people were encouraged to send their sons to the educational institutions. The entire teaching of Buddhism provides directions to develop good conduct and which is also the essence of a sound system of education. To be a moral being, one must follow the noble path, eight-fold paths as preached by Buddha provides guidance for moral education and peace. Observance of purity is more important than the observance of rituals. If one realizes this truth from the very beginning, he will do nothing which may create any trouble in his life. So, he will conduct his life as to ensure his physical, mental, moral and spiritual development, if the students, parents and teachers are motivated by the four noble truths, children will be developed in a desirable manner and our educational system will be transformed. Any way, not only for the students and teachers but also for all, the noble truths and fold paths may help in getting themselves free from worldly miseries and will be easier to gain the ultimate goal of education too.
Conclusion:
To sum up, Buddhist philosophy is the middle way philosophy, neither has recognition with god, soul, spiritualism and re-birth nor regards the soul as the central point. Although it has got different branches and a great number of people is following it as a religion but it is philosophy more which can cover many people. It carries the four great truths with eight fold paths which are very much important especially in the field of education to gain the ultimate goal of education and to develop a responsible disciplined citizen. We can learn many more things regarding the educational system also. Federal institutions system, opposed to the caste system (no discrimination in caste, class, sex, and so on), its better aim of education, curriculum system are some of the other contribution in the educational field too, are the notable points. The most important thing I have found in Buddhist philosophy is the presentation of noble truths and fold paths which help in getting themselves free from worldly miseries and will be easier to gain the ultimate goal of education.It is popular education, wise based education, evolution of medicine and surgery, contribution of logic and professional education are the important values Buddhist education.

References:
Pokharel. I.P. (2009). Course Pack for M.Ed. KatmanduUniversity School of Education: KU photocopy centre.
Aggarwal, J.C. (1985). Theory and principles of education. Delhi: Vikas publication house.

Wagley and Karki, Mana Prasad, Upendra. (2065). Foundations of education. Kathmandu:Bidhrthi Pustak Bhandar.

Sharma, C. (2006). Foundations of education. Kathmandu: M.K.publishers and distributors.

Climate Change

Basic Concepts and Definitions
Global Change:
Changes in any scale that changes the functions of the earth ,changes related to people livelihoods, tangible natural changes is called global change.The changes of any scale that immediately alters the function of local system and cumulative or directly effects the earth system is known as global change (Lekhak, 2005).
Globalization:
A localized environmental effects which gradually operates to wider perimeter and operates the world with its cumulative responses, such phenomenon is called globalization.
Globalization is a broad process of global social, economic and environment change leading to integrate world ( Lekhak & Lekhak, 2005 P.210).Globalization refers ‘primarily to the global effects, notoriously unintended and unanticipated, rather than to global initiatives and undertakings.’ It ‘is not about what we all, or at least the most resourceful and enterprising among us, wish or hope to do. It is about what is happening to us all.’ We live in a ‘man-made wilderness’, not least because of ‘the growing experience of weakness, indeed of impotence, of the habitual, taken-for-granted ordering agencies’ - above all the state, of whose sovereignty all three main supports (military, economic and cultural self-sufficiency) have ‘been broken beyond repair’. Bauman’s concern is overwhelmingly with the human meaning which Dickens’ essentially technical account of globalization leaves out. He assumes, however, a similar definition of globalization as technologically-driven economic change, and his account is even simpler than Dickens’, to the point of being simplistic. Bauman’s pessimistic cultural critique leaves little room for agency, and this is because he sees both state and public sphere as deeply compromised by globalization. The other authors under consideration, although largely sharing the definition of globalization with Dickens and Bauman, make more serious attempts to define the possibilities of political action to deal with its consequences.
Forms of global change:
There are two main forms of global change, they are 1.systemetic global change and 2.cumulative global change .If there is change in environment and it changes or impacts globally , it is called systematic global change. For example if there is increase in temperature of the earth causes global warming. Local environment changes that has effects to global system on cumulating is called cumulative global change. e.g. Soil quality degradation due to agro-practices .

Need and importance of addressing global change:

Let us see an interlink of global change, by anthropogenic causes the water becomes polluted, when the fresh water is declined there will change in ecosystem causes biodivesity loss, desertification ,affect human health .If stratospheric ozone is depleted by anthropogenic causes, will change the climate as well as ecosystems may cause biodiversity loss.The loss in ecological system and biodiversity directly affect the human health. The change in climate is the main cause of desertification which cause the decline in system of fresh water, it is closely related to human health and lots of species needed for human beings. It can be represented by following diagram:
From the resent publication of Nagaric daily(5th Dec 2009), the carbon emission by different countries are as follow:
Carbon Emission:
S.N. Countries Percentage
1 China 21.5
2 USA 20.2
3 European Union 13.8
4 Russia 5.5
5 India 5.5
6 Japan 4.6
7 Nepal 0.025
(Bhatta, 2009)
To eliminate the contribution from human activity would require that we shut down virtually all human activity that uses carbon based fossil fuels.Developing countries such as India and The People's Republic of China feel they should be exempted, from restrictions on the amount of greenhouse gases they can produce.The developing countries say that only the developed countries should be forced to cut back.However if the developing countries are exempted you will not be able to eliminate the contribution to Global Warming that is made by green house gases emitted as a result of human activity.The bottom line is that you cannot change your lifestyle enough to prevent Global Warming. Also, for Global Warming to be prevented you would have to shut down the economiesof the developing countries as well.The amount of the cutbacks that are necessary to stop Global Warming are so large and so painful that no country has the political will to make those sacrifices for any length of time.Right now the only cutbacks proposed are merely public relations gestures to make people feel good about themselves without really having ot make the very painful sacrifices that would be necessary to stop Global Warming.
An increase in global temperatures can in turn cause other changes, including sea level rise, and changes in the amount and pattern of precipitation resulting in floods and drought[7]. There may also be changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, though it is difficult to connect specific events to global warming. Other effects may include changes in agricultural yields, glacier retreat, reduced summer streamflows, species extinctions and increases in the ranges of disease vectors.

Ways of reducing global warming

Global Warming is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth's near-surface air and oceans. Global average air temperature near the Earth’s surface has risen drastically. It will certain bring disastrous changes like sea level rise, floods & drought, extreme weather conditions, lesser agricultural yields, glacier retreat, and many more. We can do a lot to protect our environment for example -
1.SAVING ELECTRICITY (SWITCH OFF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT, COMPUTERS, TV ETC. WHEN NOT IN USE).
2. USING JUTE BAGS OR PLASTIC BAGS
3. USING COMPACT FLOURESCENT LIGHTS (CFLs)
4. USING CAR POOLS / PUBLIC TRANSPORT
5.ADOPTING A TREE
6.SAVING & CONSERVING WATER AND HARVESTING RAIN WATER
7.PROPERLY DISPOSING OF E-WASTE
8.USING SOLAR ENERGY FOR COOKING / HEATING / LIGHTING
9. AVOIDING ELEVATOR AND WALKING WHEREVER POSSIBLE
10.REDUCING A/C CONSUMPTION
11.PRINTING ON BOTH SIDES OF PAPER
12. REGULAR MAINTENANCE OF VEHICLES TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION
12. USING NATURAL RESOURCES TO MEET UNAVOIDABLE NEEDS ONLY.
Sustainable Development:
The Brundtland commission in 1987 brought a concept of SD.It is also called the world commission on environment and development. It had published a report of “our common future.SD is the development that meets the needs of present generation without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs.
Importance and need of SD
1.Proper use of resource
2.Feeling of responsibility
3.Development of basic aspects
4.Development based on public participation
5.Determination of limit of development
6.Long term vision
Principles of Sustainable Development
1.Conservation of eco-system
2.Sustainable Development of society
3.Consevation of biodiversity
4.Population control
5.Development of human resource
6.Increment in public participation
7.Conservation of cultural heritage.
8.Limit of Earth’s carrying capacity
Application of SD
1.balance of environment & nature
2.The target is fulfilled if development works include balance diet, neat and clean drinking water, health services security etc.
3.Any renewable resource as vegetation ,birds and animal of the earth can be increased.
4.The development work should be conducted by paying attention towards the aspects of bearing and carrying capacity of the earth.
5.Conservation programme of living beings should be taken together with development works.
“ Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own need” (WCED, 1987)
Social and political aspect: Sustainability is regarded as a way not to damage future supplies, “ Harvesting and Managing Renewable Resources”
Issues and Schools of thought:
There are three mail issues 1. development 2.needs and 3.Sustainibility, these issues are related to economic growth, materials and use of natural resources. There are two schools of thought they are Anthropocentric and Biocentric , first emphasis only for human beings ,tells that the earth if from human beings, second focused for all the living things and environment which says the resources are limited in the earth so use them sustainably, that is why the resources are for future generations .
Components and Causes of Global Change
Land degradation:
Land degradation is a concept in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by one or more combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land. Natural hazardsare excluded as a cause, however human activities can indirectly affect phenomena such as floods and bushfires.It is estimated that up to 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded. Land degradation is a global problem, largely related toagricultural use. The major causes include:Land clearance, such as clear cutting and deforestation, Agricultural depletion of soil nutrients through poor farming practices,Livestock including overgrazing,Irrigation and overdrafting, Urban sprawl and commercial development,Land pollution including industrial waste,Vehicle off-roading (Joshi, 2058)
Effects
The main outcome of land degradation is a substantial reduction in the productivity of the land. The major stresses on vulnerable land include :accelerated soil erosion by wind and water soil acidification or alkalinisation,salination,destruction of soil structure including loss of organic matter, derelict soil
‘Land degradation generally refers to loss of utility or potential utility of land or to the reduction , loss or change features of land or organism that cannot be replaced “
Barrow, 1991
Forms of Land degradation:
There are two forms of land degradation 1.natural degradation and 2.artificial degradation
Natural degradations are landslide, earthquake drought fire floods volcanic eruption cyclones artificial degradation are agricultural practices use of chemicals, industrialization, road construction, building construction that is compaction of earth crust
Common forms of land degradation are environmental pollution, erosion, compaction, anaaerobism, unsustainable use of resources, acidification, leaching, salinization, decrease in cation retention capacity, fertility depletion, nutrients gap( essential elements lacking), eutrophication, ground water contamination, gaseous emission, … desertification.
Land use in Nepal
(Pande, 2000)

Desertification:
Desertification refers to dry land degradation, it is taken as land degradation to the extent it holds no capacity to support life. Desertification refers to land degradation in arid, semi-arid and sub-humid area due to anthropogenic activities ( UNEP, 1993).Irreversible decline in biological potential of land is called desertification. Degradation of land by ecosystem is due to treatment (Restoration/ Reclamation) land Use Change in Land quality
Causes of desertification:
1. Lack of rainfall
2. Deforestation
3. Over grazing
4. Over increase in pop
5. Climate change
6. Use of chemicals and weapons
7. Mining works in large scale
8. Drought
Indicators of desertification:
A).Physical indicators
1. Decrease in soil depth
2. Decrease in soil organic matter
3. Decrease in soil fertility
4. Soil crust formation compaction
5. Appearance of sand storms
6. Decline in quality and quantity of ground water
7. Decline in quality and quantity of surface water
8.Salinization
9.Alkalinization
10.Increased seasonality of springs and small streams
B)Biological indicators
1)Vegetation
i. decrease in cover
ii. decrease in above bio-mass
iii. decrease in yields
iv. alteration of key species distribution and frequency
v. failure of species to successfully reproduce

2)Animal
i. Alteration in key species distribution and frequency
ii. change in population of domestic animals
iii. change in herd composition
iv. decline in livestock production
v. decline in livestock yield

3)Social/Economic indicators
-- change in land use and water use
-- change in settlement pattern (e. g. abandonment of villages)
--change in population parameters
--demographic evidence , migration statics, public health information
--change in social process indicators
Types of desertification:
1.Cold Desertification: Due to cold the land is changed into desert , it happens in very cold regions of the earth like in the Himalayan region of Nepal e.g.Periglacial area(Dolpa 10 sq km).Siberia ,Greenland, Canada ,Polar regions are also the hotspots.
2.Warm Desertification: Due more heat the land is changed into desert it is warm desertification. e.g.Sahara, Australia, Arabia, Gobi, Kalahari etc.
Problems of desertification:
1. Environmental Imbalance
2. Deficit of NR
3. Human Problems
4. Extinct of wild life and vegetation
5. Natural Hazards
6. Decrease in Production
Biodiversity loss and genetic resources:
It refers to variability among living organisms from all sources including terrestrial, marine, other aquatic ecosystem and the ecological complexes of which they are a part.
Biodiversity in a particular habitat is the sum total of all the organism in a particular area, of all their individual variation and all the interactions between them
Types of biodiversity:1) Ecosystem diversity2) Species diversity3) Genetic diversity
Biodiversity outlook:
Group World Nepal
Algae 40000 687
Fungi 70000 1600
Bryophytes 14000 740
Lichen 7000 463
Ferns &Ferns allies 12000 380
Flowering plants 250000 5944
Arthropods 900000 4438
Other insects 190000 144
Fresh Water fishes 85000 179
Amphibians 4000 36
Reptiles 6500 80
Birds 9881 847
Mammals 4327 183
Source :BD database system of Nepal
Genetic resources:
The carrier of hereditary characters are known as genes. They are made up of DNA, RNA and proteins. There are the genetic materials of flora fauna which are valued as a critical resource for present and future generation .Plant genetic resources are the most valuable assets of the World.
They provide basic materials for the plant researchers or plant breeders
Importance of Genetic Resource:
Plant and animal breeding, Plant and animal hybridization ,Tissue culture(It is a modern technique for development of new plants in an artificial nutrient medium aseptic, surgically clean condition.)
Water resource:
Water is the major resource of the world. There are four main parts of water cycle
a) Condensation
b) Precipitation(Rain, Snow, Sleet, Hail)
c)Accumulation
d) Evaporation
Types of water resources
1)Sea water(97%)
2)Fresh water(3%)
Water capacity :
World has 42655Km3 of fresh water ,Brazil 5418 Km3,Russia 4312 Km3,Indonesia 2838 Km3,China 2812 Km3,Canada 2740 Km3.These 5 countries cover 40% of world capacity.
Low water capacity:Some of the countries have low capacity of water because of natural or environmental cause.Kuwait,UAE,Mauritania,Jordan,LA Jamahiriya are major countries lacking water.
Use of water
1.3 billion people are without sustainable access to clean water ,2.6 billion without access to adequate sanitation, 2.2 million deaths per year from water-related diseases (1.6 million are <5 years old) ,Every 8 seconds a child dies from contaminated water.
1. Drinking and sanitation
2. Irrigation
3. Hydro electricity
4. Micro hydro
5. Water mills
6. Industries

Water and behavior:
Insufficient water or droughts,Anxiety,General emotional distress,Fatigue and confusion,
Conflict over water(Darfur, Middle East, China, Bangladesh, India, Africa),Displacement,Anxiety, depression etc are due to lack of water around the world.

Food crisis:
The lack of food is known as food crisis. The main cause of food crisis is excessive rate of population. But the crisis of water as well as change in cycle of water is very important for reducing crops yields. That is why food crisis is due to scarcity of water. Nepal is also facing the problem of food crisis because of management, climate change, social cause, political cause, environmental cause etc.
Global climate change:
Earth's climate has always changed; it is the rate of change that is of current concern to scientists.
Carbon is critical to the biosphere and must continue cycling to support life on Earth (Kramer, 2008).The carbon cycle includes sources, sinks, and release agents.Carbon dioxide is an important greenhouse gas.Living organisms in an ecosystem can have profound effects upon the local atmosphere.Changes in vegetation can have profound effects upon win speed.Understanding the major greenhouse gases is necessary to identify the current trends in atmospheric concentrations and climate change.Human activity has been linked with increased greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Conclusion:
From the basic concept of global change and globalization ,the concept of sustainable development has been introduced.Sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of present generation without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs. This discovery and the global industrial revolution that followed changed the world forever for our species. In general, fossil fuels are a legacy bequeathed to us by the biosphere of the distant past. On an ancient warmer Earth with a high concentration of carbon dioxide ( ) in the atmosphere, photosynthetic organisms (algae and higher plants) absorbed the , and used it to produce abundant organic material. When these organisms died, they were buried deep within the earth and slowly turned into coal and oil.
Since the 1800s, we've been burning vast quantities of these fossil fuels to power our developing technological and global civilization. As a result, we've been releasing the trapped in the fuels in the form of energy-rich organic molecules back into the atmosphere, increasing the atmospheric concentration of . By itself, this is not a concern. Carbon dioxide comprises a very small proportion of the atmosphere, and no projected increase would affect our breathing. But has another significant property. As we explored in the Greenhouse Effect section, carbon dioxide absorbs heat. The other major component gases of Earth's atmosphere, oxygen ( ) and nitrogen ( ), do not. Since the 1800s, concentrations worldwide have increased from approximately 280 ppm (or 0.028%) to around 365 ppm (0.0365%). The increase seems trivial, but it also means that some 3 gigatons (3 billion metric tons) of are being added to the atmosphere every year. Because is a powerful greenhouse gas, we can reasonably conclude that the earth's temperature should go up as concentrations increase. In fact, climatologists have detected a steady but small increase in global average temperatures over the last few decades, based on weather data collected all around the world. Six of the last ten were the hottest years on record.
Are we seeing the end of the long period of benign climate since the last ice age? Will the climate change for the worse because of our actions? In fact, no one knows for sure. Most atmospheric scientists believe that the global climate is warming at least partially because of a build-up of from fossil fuel use, but what that means to humans and natural ecosystems is largely unknown. The climate is vastly complex and strongly influenced by many factors other than greenhouse gas concentrations. (Some of these factors are explored in the Introduction to Climate Section.) This makes it extremely difficult to link any climatic events or characteristics to a single cause. As a result, controversy exists as to the magnitude and danger of global warming induced by greenhouse gases. Many scientists take the issue very seriously and support efforts to slow or reverse the build-up of atmospheric with the expectation that global warming will slow as a result. Others, however, contend that may not be affecting the climate and that the changes are part of natural, long-term climatic cycles. They suggest that efforts to reduce emissions are unnecessary and dangerous to economic growth and development. While the controversy rages, researchers around the world continue to gather atmospheric data, develop and refine predictive computer models, and try to reduce the uncertainty in our understanding of the earth's climate.
We know that the earth's climate has changed over time. Throughout the earth's history, there have been periods of glaciation followed by warming trends in which the glaciers retreated toward higher altitudes and latitudes. Today's concerns focus on the current and projected rate of climate change based, in large part, on human activities.
1. What has the earth's climate been over time?
2. Why is the carbon cycle so important when looking at climate change issues?
3. What major events in human history are thought to be factors in changing the earth's atmosphere?
4. How do scientists measure gas concentrations in the atmosphere?
5. Why are climate change and global warming considered to be controversial topics by some groups and individuals?
It is clear that the climate has been changed because of anthropogenic causes as well as natural causes, the natural causes can not be reduced by human activities, but anthropogenic causes can be reduced by awaring people globally. Global change is the major issue for us and for future generation.
References:
Bhatta, H. (2009). Himal Pagladaichha. Nagariv , 4
Joshi, M. (2058). Population, Environment & Quality of Life. Bagbazar, Kathmandu: Bhudipuran Prakashan.
Kramer, J. (2008, March 23). Global Climate Change. Retrieved April 10, 2008, from Global Climate Change: http://www.ucar.edu
Lekhak, L. a. (2005, January 15). Introduction to Global Change. (P. Dhungana, Performer) Adventure Work Theater, Kathmandu, Middle region, Nepal.
Pande, B. (2000). Environmental Education Source Book. Kathmandu: IUCN, Nepal.