KATHMANDU UNIVERSITY
School of Education
M. Ed Program
Spring Semester (February 2010 to July 2010)
Instructional Plan
Instructor: Mr. Tulashi P Thapaliya
Monday, 16:30 to 19:30
Room 103
EDUC 507: Curriculum and Evaluation
Credit Hours: 3
Course Description
The course aims at helping students to conceptualise, develop and design curriculum for school subjects. Focusing more on the blend of theory and practice of curriculum issues, the course addresses various models of curriculum and research issues in school curriculum. An emphasis is also given on the analysis of curriculum models for implementation and application in various educational programs and evaluates their effectiveness and relevancy.
Objectives
Broadly, the course has the following objectives:
• To develop an acquaintance with the concept of curriculum, nature of different curricula
• To analyse school curricula in accordance with different models and types.
• To be able to facilitate the process of curriculum development
• To explore research issues related to curriculum
Tentative Schedule
SN Date Focus Readings / assignments Assignments / Due date
1 Feb, 15 Introduction of People
Introduction to the Course
- Understanding curriculum - Murray Print, Introducing curriculum
- Ornstein and Hunkins- The field of curriculum
2 Feb, 22 Conceptualising the Notion of Curriculum:
- Curriculum conceptions Murray Print, Curriculum presage
Ornstein and Hunkins- The field of curriculum
3 March, 01 Curriculum foundations: Philosophical Foundations Murray Print, Curriculum presage; Ornstein and Hunkins
4 March, 08 Curriculum foundations: Historical Foundations Murray Print, Curriculum presage; Ornstein and Hunkins
5 March, 15 Curriculum foundations: psychological Foundations Ornstein and Hunkins- chapter 4
6. March, 22 Curriculum foundations: Sociological Foundations Murray Print, Curriculum presage; Ornstein and Hunkins
7 March, 29 Curriculum Development Models:
- Rational models
- Cyclical models
- Dynamic models Murray Print,
1. The Curriculum Process Due assignment 1(a)
8 April 05 Curriculum Development Models Murray Print,
The Curriculum Process
9 April 12 Human interests in curriculum development
- Human interests: technical, practical and emanicipatory
- Nature of curriculum and pedagogical implications Shirley Grundy
Curriculum: Product or Praxis
1. The fundamental human interests
10 April 19 Human interests in curriculum development
- Human interests: technical, practical and emanicipatory
- Nature of curriculum and pedagogical implications Shirley Grundy
Curriculum: Product or Praxis
1. The fundamental human interests
11 April 26 Curriculum development Ornstein and Hunkins- chapter 7
12 May 03 Curriculum Designs
- Subject centred designs
- Learner centred designs
- Problem centred designs
- Core designs Murray Print,
Curriculum Design;
Ornstein and Hunkins- chapter 8
13 May 10 Aims, goals and objectives Ornstein and Hunkins- chapter 9 Assign 1 (b)
And Mid-test
14 May 17 Curriculum Development in Nepal Different reports on educational reform; curriculum documents;
National Curriculum Framework;
15 May 24 Curriculum Development in Nepal Analysis of school curriculum by level and subjects (objectives, subjects, weighting; methods; evaluation;
16 May 31 Curriculum implementation Ornstein and Hunkins- chapter 10
Relevant official documents from CDC Nepal
17 June 07 Curriculum Evaluation Ornstein and Hunkins- chapter 11;
IIEP publication on curriculum evaluation
18 June 14 Curriculum Evaluation Ornstein and Hunkins- chapter 11;
IIEP publication on curriculum evaluation
19 June 21 Understanding Curriculum as political text Pinar et al, Assignment 4
20 June 28 Curriculum issues and trends Ornstein and Hunkins- chapter 12;
Exam
Evaluation
a. Internal assessment: (four Assignments) 50 percent
b. Final exam: 50 percent
Assignments for Internal Assessment
1. Reflective writing (15 points): Keep a weekly written reflection of your understandings, reactions, and or questions about the readings and discussions in class, giving consideration to your SELF as a curriculum inquirer and developer. I will collect journals twice to dialogue with you. [DUE March 23, and May 11]
2. Presentation on curriculum issues (10 points)(in Nepal or internationally!!): Pick up some pertinent issues / social forces shaping curriculum. Examples of issues might be drawn from your particular professional school/community situations, national reports, news-paper articles, other readings at a local, state, national or global level). Be prepared to lead a discussion on the issues brought forward. [Due date: decided in the class]
3. Mid-term test (10 points): May 10
4. Curriculum Analysis (10 points): Choose a curriculum and analyze it. [DUE: June 21]
5. Regularity and participation (5 points):
References
Grundy, S. (1987). Curriculum: product or praxis. London: Routledge Falmer.
Ornstein A C & Hunkins F P. (2004). Curriculum: foundations, principles and issues (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson.
Pinar, W.F., Reynolds, W.M., Slattery, P., & Taubman, P.M. (1995). Understanding curriculum. New York: Peter Lang.
Print, M. (1993). Curriculum development and design. St. Leonards: Allen & Unwin P. Ltd.
Slattery, P. (1995). Curriculum development in the postmodern era. NY: Garland Publishing.
IIEP. ( ). A handbook of curriculum evaluation. Paris: Unesco.
National Curriculum Framework
Curriculum documents including research studies;
Policy documents related to curriculum;
Positive Mental Attitude(PMA) in any discipline makes responsive to change.
Tuesday, February 16, 2010
Wednesday, February 3, 2010
EESD 505
WHY FOREST RESOURCES ARE UNDER PRESSURE IN NEPAL?
(A case study of Simalchaur Community Forest of Tanahun district)
Back ground:
Nepal is a land of diversity.It is a small landlocked and mountainous country.Which is situated between India in the south , east, west and the Tibetan region of China in the north. The country occupies 147181 sq Km .It is spread over 880 Km from Mechi to Mahakali ,east to west . But the width is about 192 KM. Geographically , Nepal 3 ecological zones, the Terai, the Hills and the Mountains, covering 17%, 68% and 15% of total area respectively.
Forest is is one of the major renewable natural resources of Nepal. Until the beginning of 1950s , the government encouraged maximum exploitation of National forest resources. But later on the private forest nationalization act of 1957 was introduced to control the rapid degradation of forest resources .But the Nationalization act 1957 could not control the rapid degradation . Therefore to tackle forest problem “Community Forestry”(CF) was legally introduced in 1978, it was approved by Nepal Australia Forestry Project(NAFP). In 1987 the first work shop recognized forest users as manager in Forestry Master Plan(FMP), which was approved in 1989. Nepal has more than 6000 species of plants. About 245 species of plants are only found in Nepal. In Nepal, a total of 118 ecosystem, 75 vegetation and 35 forest types have been identified so far. Nepal is well known for its forests which attract biologists and geologists for research and study.
Introduction:
Community forestry has become a popular movement, challenging foresters to change their thinking. The message is simple: “people are the key to success rather than the cause of failure .The message may be simple, but barriers to successful community forestry are many:
The people may not have ownership or control of the forest”.
If they do have rights to the forest, factions within communities may exploit others, or the community as a whole may be exploited by outsiders;
The 'community' may be poorly defined or heterogeneous, or increasing in size due to in-migration and high birth-rates;
The forests are often degraded due to past logging or agricultural activity;
The rewards from new plantations or rehabilitated secondary forests may seem too far away to be worth striving for; Participatory decision-making can be cumbersome and unwieldy; The community may not be interested in maintaining forest cover, preferring to clear it for agriculture or to make money; Communities may lack the technical skill to manage the existing forest or to plant new ones; Communities may not have sufficient capital to establish viable processing facilities. The outside agency that is promoting community forestry may be doing so with a particular outcome in mind, an outcome not necessarily in tune with the wants and needs of the community in question; and, The concept of community forestry on degraded or logged-over land may be acceptable to powerful interests, but it may not have the same level of appeal when applied to primary forests.
Despite these and other obstacles, community forestry also offers opportunity. Local people, who are often blamed for the destruction of the forest, have the opportunity to establish a long-term source of income. Foresters have the opportunity to rediscover the grassroots of their profession. And nations have the opportunity to develop a forest-based industry which has widespread community support.
When community forestry is initiated by an outside agency, the key is undoubtedly partnership. Community forestry requires adoption of 'bottom-up' decision-making - authoritarian approaches have no role. For professional foresters, community forestry may often require a healthy dose of humility, because it is sometimes hard for professionals to admit that they have as much - or more- to learn than the people they are attempting to educate.
Community Forestry:
"Community forestry is a village-level forestry activity, decided on collectively and implemented on communal land, where local populations participate in the planning, establishing, managing and harvesting of forest crops, and so receive a major proportion of the socio-economic and ecological benefits from the forest."- Martel & Whyte, 1992
"Successful community forestry requires... genuine popular participation in decision-making... Experience has proven time and again that participation is more than a development cliche; it is an absolute necessity if goals are to be met. But working with people rather than policing them is a new role for many foresters."- Eckholm et al, 1984
"Community forestry has the following characteristics: the local community controls a clearly and legally defined area of forest; the local community is free from governmental and other outside pressure concerning the utilisation of that forest; if the forestry involves commercial sale of timber or other products, then the community is free from economic exploitation of markets or other pressure from outside forces; the community has long-term security of tenure over the forest and sees its future as being tied to the forest"- J. Revington, Rainforest Information Centre, 1992
"Community forestry, social forestry and rural development forestry are more or less equivalent and reflect Abraham Lincoln's view of democracy - government of the people, by the people, for the people."- J. Burley, Oxford Forestry Institute
"The political dimension of community forestry makes it a venue for people's struggle against domination and exploitation of the community's resources by 'outsiders'. Ecology, equity and social justice are part of this struggle."- Rao, 1991
Rationale of the study:
This study is a case study of Simalchaur Community Forest(SCF) in Khairenitar V D C Tanahun District . This forest is 30 Km to the east from beautiful city Pokhara(A city of tourism) and 170 Km west from the capital city Kathmandu.
This study will be helpful to the policy makers, planners, social organizers of community forestry. It will improve people’s participation in CF. This study will be helpful to reduce the pressured activities on CF.
The study will investigate and analyze the forest resources of SCF . This CF is under pressure by different issues of villagers , forest maphias, misuse of rules and regulations of CF. The study will find out the cause of pressure on CF . It is based on reviewing available primary data, secondary data, literature, documents and reports.
Limitation of the study:
Each and every study has its own limitations. This study also is not an exception . The presentator of this paper being a student , is handicapped by time and economic factors. This study has been focused on small CF. This CF has users groups in ward number 7, 8 and 9 of Khairenitar V D C, Tanahun district. So that the study may not represent totally all the different parts of the country. In fact this research will be limited only on the above objectives.
Study Methodology:
Among 46 Village Development Committees and one municipality of Tanahun district ,only one VDC has been selected as the research area .The causes of selecting this area is :
1. It is a virgin forest.
2.I am a member of user group of this CF.
3.This CF is easily accessible for me.
Nature and sources of data:
To fulfill above research objectives both primary and secondary data are essential. Primary data are taken from CF field, field photographs, observations, interviews etc. Secondary data are derived from relevant books, project documents, journals, unpublished materials, forest user group minute book, office of Simalchaur CF. Khairenitar VDC.
Types of forest in Nepal:
i)National Forest
ii)Private Forest
iii)Religious Forest
iv)Lease hold Forest
v)Community Forest
Achievements of community forestry
Better forest condition, social mobilization, income generation for rural development, institutional building at grass root level.Development of the concepts WID,WAD and GAD. Analysis shows that community forestry in Nepal has been Successful in designing and implementing policies.Two way communication between community forestry user groups and government.25% of the national forest is being managed by more than 35% of the total population.More than 795 CFUGs whose committee members are only women.Gender equity and at least 33% of women in CFUG is compulsory.CFUG have generated more than Rs940 million from sale of forest products (2006),Micro level research studies shows forest condition has improved.Poor and disadvantaged groups are getting benefits from CF.
History of forest act and rules
1.Private forest rule 1918 B.S.
2.Private forest nationalization act 1957
3.Forest act 1961
– forest products sale and distribution rules 1970
– Panchayat forest rules 1978
– Panchayat protected forest rules 1978
– Lease hold forest rules 1978
4.Forest protection special agreement act 1967
The main aim of these act and rules is to establish state control forest land and introduced a strong ‘protection of territory’ but forest area decreased instead of increasing. Far sighted concept of people’s participation in forest mgt came in 1978 Old legislation “keep people out” New legislation “let people protect, manage and utilize.”
Latest forest act 2049b.s. and rules 2051 (with edit 2055)
DFO can hand over part of NF to CFUG.Formation of users group and entry in DFO office.
Preparation of operational plan including detail information by CFUG.Awareness about handling and punishment by DFO.Recording CFUG and CF by DFO.Returning the forest by DFO if CFUG is unable to manage sustain ably
Sustainable management of community forestry
i)Protection and management by users themselves.
ii)Utilization of forest by long term perspectives.
iii)Decision about forest mgt is taken by users themselves.
iv)Equal benefits are allocated to poor and disadvantaged people.
v) Management of forest according to ecological and social requirements.
Profile of the study area:
Location:
The study area is in Khairenitar VDC of Tanahun district.It lies about 19 Km from headquater of Tanahun , Prithvi highway touches this CF. It is situated about at the latitude 28.3 degree northern parallel and the longitude84.4 degree eastern meridian with an elevation 501m to 580m above sea level. This CF is surrounded by Seara, Manapang ,Kota, Gyarsing,Rithabote, Thumka, Duigare and Kaure villages of Khairenitar VDC and Manapang VDC. Archale,Nerathum and Rahale villages are inside this CF.Location of this CF Is given below in the map.
Climate:
The climatic condition of this region is humid sub-tropical.The average temperature in the hottest months of the year June, July, August and September is 36 degree and in the coldest month 3-5 degree in December and January. The annual mean temperature is 23 degree.This forest receives about 2000mm rainfall annually.
Water:
In Khairenitar VDC there are three boarder streams Syande, Kumle and Myagde.The small streams Dharapani, Dhand Khola, Khahare,Gopalsingh,Jamune and Gakuldhuke are originated from this CF.These streams are being used for drinking water and irrigation. All of these are tributaries of Seti river. It has got few spring and indigenous well.
Forest and Vegetation:
Forest is the most valuable and renewable resource of Khairenitar VDC, so that it is being conserved carefully and honestly by user group. The forest covers 576.5 ha land in Khairenitar VDC.The forests are on the hills.The Simalchaur CF covers 80 ha of land. Majority of the forest is covered by virgin Saal, it is about 90% in this CF. So that this CF has very important role in economic status of the people.
The list of major vegetation :
S.N. Common Names Botanical Names
1 Saal Shorea robusta
2 Chilaune Schima wallichi
3 Katus Castanopsis indica
4 Khayar Accacia catechu
5 Tuni Cedrela toona
6 Sisoo Dalbergia sisoo
7 Bans Dentrocalamus strictus
8 Lankuri Fraxinus floribunda
9 Chanp Michelia champaca
10 Pipal Ficus religissa
11 Amala Emblica officinalis
12 Asare Legerstroemia flosreginate
13 Bar Ficus bengalensis
14 Saaj Terminalia alata
15 Bayar Zizyphus jujube
16 Khanayo Ficus cuniabuch
17 Gunyalo Elaragrus parvifolicwall
18 Budhi-Dhayaro Lagerstoroenia indica
19 Amriso Thysanolaen maxima
20 Jamun Syzygium cumini
21 Imili Tamarindus indica
22 Bhalayo Semecardus anacardium
23 Barro Terminellia bellerica
24 Harro Terminellia chebula
25 Aanp Magnifera indica
26 Kadam Anthocephalus cadamba
27 Dhobini Mussenda frondosa
28 Chhatiban Alstonia scholaris
29 Bhorlo Bauhinia vahlii
30 Rohini Malotus philipinesis
31 Bel Aegle mormelus
32 Khar Themeda villosa
Animals and birds:
1.Monkey,2.Leopard,3.Fox,4.Bear,5. Rabbit,6.Jackal, 7.Vulture,8.Parrot,9.Dove,10.Cooku
11.Jungle cat,12.Owl,13.Xema,14.Crow,15.Starline,16.Sparow,17.Duck,19.Deer. Monkeys are major wild animal of this CF.
Caste and Ethnic Composition:
There are different types of castes in user group of Simalchaur CF , the following table show the composition of societies in user groups of CF:
S. N. Group Houses
1 Brahmin 90
2 Kumal 65
3 Sarki 42
4 Kami 40
5 Magar 20
6 Chhetri 16
7 Newar 16
8 Gurung 12
9 Giri(Sannyasi) 10
10 Bhujel 10
11 Damai 10
12 Others 6
13 Total 331
Study findings and discussion:
1. Formation of Forest user committee:
It is formed by the general meeting of forest user group. The forest user committee consists of only 11 members. The structure of forest user committee are as follow:
Chairperson ,Vice chairperson, Secretary, Vice secretary& Treasurer one each and 6 members are elected by user group member in general meeting.The tenure of each committee is three years. Members of the committee are from forest user group, social workers, mother groups and clubs. Present committee is as follow:
S.N. Post Name
1 Chairperson Nar Nath Ghimire
2 Vice-chairperson Netra Bahadur Sarki
3 Secretary Khadananda Poudel
4 Vice-secretary Saraswati Giri
5 Treasurer Laxmi Ghimire
6 Member Haribhakta Timsina
7 Member Chija B K
8 Member Gunja Man B K
9 Member Jas Bahadur Nepali(Sarki)
10 Member Sushila Kumal
11 Member Buddhi Bahadur Ale
2. Forest User Group:
Only the persons whose field or home is in Khairenitar VDC ward number 7 are the general members of the forest user group.If any member is against rule of CF or forest act ,her/his work is unsatisfactory , is avoided by the rules of CF. If the member who submitted from the committee realizes crime and beg-pardon ,the committee will think about this and again they could include in the committee. Separated families from the same group/area and immigrants of ward number 7 of Khairenitar VDC, qualified people from the legislation will be the members of forest user group.Forest user group were divided into two groups Ka and Kha as their residential character , in present situation only one group is there.
3.Forest Guard:
To watch and inform the committee as well as to regulate rules of CF, a guard has been managed by user group, salary of forest guard is collected through grant or levy from every household in each year. Forest guard is also a component of CF.
4.Office:
Simalchaur community forest has its own office to conduct different activities of CF. It is a concrete building near Prithvi Highway. Code of conduct are listed in this office to inform the user group and others. It is regularly opened by secretary and vice-secretary. The office collect grant and levy from households. It also manages general meeting, seminar and awareness programs .
5.Blocks:
Simalchaur CF is divided into four blocks. They are called Rahale, Simalchaur, Kalaban and Gakuldhuke. They cover 21 ha, 17.5 ha, 19.5 ha and 23 ha respectively.Blocks are making easy to care and use forest resources per year.
6.Boundary:
There is no any fixed boundary of this CF, as well as its blocks. But the office has maps of blocks and map of CF.Some small villages are inside the CF.
7.Grazing:
Cattles are brought into the four blocks to graze because there are no grass land for cattle.Most of the herds cut trees during cattle feeding inside the forest. This is an important cause of degradation of forest or pressure on the forest. The cattle herds stole fire wood and timber regularly.It is not well managed in this CF.
8.Firing:
Forest fire is strictly prohibited in this CF, if some one who sets fire in the forest is punished according to forest act as well as CF act according to decision of user committee .If forest fire is seen in the forest ,user group inform instantly and extinguished fire by following ways:
i)By drawing fire lines
ii)By using green branches of trees
iii) By using soil and water according to availability.
9. Illegal cutting:
i)People in the buffer area are cutting fire wood regularly because of lack of fuel.
ii)People in the buffer area are suffering from wild animals by damaging crops and killing cattle day by day.So people are led to cut trees.
iii)Some poachers also cut trees during their illegal hunting.
iv)Khayar trees are cutting by wood maphia.
v)Some people are promoting to settle in buffer area.
vi)Some are interesting to use forest as their private resource.
vii)The forest encroacher leading to make private forest.
Political Value:
Four parties are in majority, they are Unified CPN, UML, Nepali congress and Rastriya Janamukti Party.There is no any influence of political parties in this CF. They are helping to conserve the forest resources as well as wild animals in this CF.No any conflict on using forest resources as well as conservation. If any member of any political party is against CF will faced a lots of difficulties in his/her social life. Few years ago a family was encroaching the block number four called Gakuldhuke, was punished by user group as well as other member of that society.
Economic value of CF:
Forest is the major natural resource of Khairenitar VDC, it is providing natural beauty, spring for drinking water, water supply for irrigation from streams of CF, leaves for making Duna and Tapari by which 56 women are getting job with the help of KhairenitarBahudesiyaMahilaBikashKendra . Woods for homes during harvesting the forest. Grass for farmed cattle. Timbers are providing to school, mother group, clubs and families of user group .
Methods of valuing forest products and service in Nepal.
i)Forest products
ii)General ecological and environmental values
iii)Eco-tourism
iv)Soil- conservation
v)Bio- diversity conservation value
vi)Carbon-sequestration value
How economic value measure ?
Economic value can be measured by the amount of money an individual is willing to pay (WTP) for a good or service. The amount of money an individual is willing to accept (WTA) as a compensation for forgoing the good or service. Willing to pay and willing to accept are measures that can be revealed in exchange.
Component of use value:
Use value captures indirect use i.e. indirect use is related to special functions of some ecosystems, provide habitats for wildlife, Forest act as carbon sinks, Prevent soil erosion, Encourage soil production, Wetlands offer flood control,Trap nutrients and sediments.
Option value component:
People may be willingly to pay for preserving biodiversity or genetic materials to ensure the option of having these goods in the future. There is no consensus even among environmental economists as to exact placement of option value among use and nonuse component, Some consider option value to be one of the use component,Option value allowing to capture both future use and nonuse benefit
Non-use value component:
Existence value
Some people derive satisfaction from the fact that many endangered species are protected against extinction, people are willingly to pay for protection of these species habitats ,Those value most likely never travel to these places, or see the species
Bequest value
Nonuse component, Many of us are concerned with future damages from global warming and would be willingly to reduce them ,Environmental valuation: This is also direct benefits which are relevant in environmental valuation. Direct use of value,Indirect use of value, Non-use value, Intrinsic
So , total economic value = direct use value + indirect use value + nonuse value + intrinsic value
Direct use value:
Goods and services directly consumed by users,Products (edible, ornamental medicinal input into production process),Recreation,Waste assimilation, Research,Education .Some families of CFUG are fully depend upon forest product to continue their daily life,which is direct use value.Saal trees and fire wood which are selling in the market by users.
Indirect use value:
It is the indirect benefit arising from ecological systems. Biological support---links to other species and habitats, Physical protection--- coastal defense function, Climate regulation, Global life support --- functions that aid in supporting life on earth .CFUG has got drinking water ,water for irrigation , natural beauty etc.
Non use value: It is the sum of existence, option, quasi-option and bequest values. Some animal and plants found in this CF provide this type of value.
Intrinsic value :
CF user group belief that all organisms have a worth of their own regardless of usefulness to human.
Social Value:
This CF is in the eastern side of Khairenitar VDC, providing natural beauty, place for recreation, shelter for wild animals, medicinal herbs, springs, streams, timber production, leaves, organic fertilizers, a major source for carbon sink etc , so that it has an important role in the society of this area.
Cultural Value:
In the top of block no two, which is called Simalchaur has got several temple of goddess , worshiped by Brahmin, Chhetri, Sarki, Damai, Giri and Magar. Few indigenous well and taps are there for water supply. Bar and Pipal trees are conserved because of Hindu tradition, that is why forest is being preserved.
Problems of Forest Management:
1.Lack of consciousness among the forest users.
2.Lack of responsibility regular observation.
3.Theft of forest resources , not known about the importance of forest conservation.
4.Problem of forest weed hoe ,plantation and contradiction.
5.Difficult to prohibit cutting of fire wood in necessary time.
6.People or the user group near CF or buffer zone has got financial problems because of non-provision getting income source .
7.The number of forest guard are less in number.
8.At the first time user group were divided into two groups Ka and Kha to use resources ,so that there were conflicts.
9.Fear of wild animals.
10.Reduction of crops by wild animals.
11.Deforestation by herds, poachers, wood thefts, grazing, and privatization.
12.Cultivation near buffer area.
Suggestions and Recommendation:
1.Forest user group has lack of education about conservation of forest so it is essential to educate them.
2.FUG should provide trainings about forest management.
3.Management of wood, fire wood, grass, and other resources to user group must be transparent.
4.To take forest commission and grant economic co-operation for user group.
5.Poor user group near buffer area should alter their profession with the management of forest user committee.
6.Rules and regulations as well as code of conduct must be informed to user group.
7.There should be advertisement of CF by showing fruitful documentary .
8.There should be provision of punishment to those who indulge in forest encroachment.
9.Plantation should be promoted in all blocks of community forest.
10.Animal grazing inside the CF should be stopped by managing grass land to cattle of farmers.
11.There should be equal treatment to the people rather than providing individual benefit.
12.Informations should be promoted in the time of cutting trees or harvesting the forest resources.
13.Blocks should be fenced or boundary should be clear to user group.
14.Forest committee’s work should be honest according to their responsibilities.
15.Conciousness should be promoted with the help of District Forest Office(DFO).
16.Training need to be given about people’s participation in CF from government level to FUG.
17.Private plantation of suitable species should be encouraged which reduces the people’s pressure on the forest and also help to fulfill the daily demand of people.
18. Furniture and wood works which are closer to this CF should watched by FUGC strictly.
Result of study:
Simalchaur forest was depleted by different causes in the past,degraded forest handed by government to CFUG has improved under community management,conduction and management of forest is being well. User’s awareness is increasing,Women participation is increasing.Women are successful to manage the forest in difficult situation.User’s participation is increasing in managing natural resources. Participation of the people in CF can be divided into six different criteria for effective people’s participation. They are conceptualization and identification, decision making, mass participation in resource mobilization, mass participation in implementation, mass sharing benefits evaluation and control. These activities are being using in this Simalchaur Community Forest(SCF).Improvement on degraded environment,User’s income is increasing.Gender equity is maintained.The pressure on the forest is being reduced because of women participation, forest acts, code of conduct and active responsibilities of user group.
References:
1. Pradhan, Charlse, Class Note EESD505 Natural Resources, Environment and Social Justice 13th September 2009.
2.Office Minute of Simalchaur Community Forest 2009,Photo copy provided by Khairenitar Village Development Committee.
3.Vergera, N. T. (1984), Agro forestry system under CF, concept, classification and use in Humid Tropics. Bankok.
4.Ghimire, Kamal Mohan,Principal Suryodaya Higher Secondary School, Khairenitar Tanahun.
5.Wikipedia
6. Community and private forestry programmed in Nepal, department of forest
7.Forest act 2049 and rules 2051 (with 2055), ministry of forest, forest div. project
8.Some medical plants, department of forest
9.B.K.Gunja Man ,member of Simalchaur community forest ,Tanahun Nepal.
10. David Julian - North East Forest Alliance
(A case study of Simalchaur Community Forest of Tanahun district)
Back ground:
Nepal is a land of diversity.It is a small landlocked and mountainous country.Which is situated between India in the south , east, west and the Tibetan region of China in the north. The country occupies 147181 sq Km .It is spread over 880 Km from Mechi to Mahakali ,east to west . But the width is about 192 KM. Geographically , Nepal 3 ecological zones, the Terai, the Hills and the Mountains, covering 17%, 68% and 15% of total area respectively.
Forest is is one of the major renewable natural resources of Nepal. Until the beginning of 1950s , the government encouraged maximum exploitation of National forest resources. But later on the private forest nationalization act of 1957 was introduced to control the rapid degradation of forest resources .But the Nationalization act 1957 could not control the rapid degradation . Therefore to tackle forest problem “Community Forestry”(CF) was legally introduced in 1978, it was approved by Nepal Australia Forestry Project(NAFP). In 1987 the first work shop recognized forest users as manager in Forestry Master Plan(FMP), which was approved in 1989. Nepal has more than 6000 species of plants. About 245 species of plants are only found in Nepal. In Nepal, a total of 118 ecosystem, 75 vegetation and 35 forest types have been identified so far. Nepal is well known for its forests which attract biologists and geologists for research and study.
Introduction:
Community forestry has become a popular movement, challenging foresters to change their thinking. The message is simple: “people are the key to success rather than the cause of failure .The message may be simple, but barriers to successful community forestry are many:
The people may not have ownership or control of the forest”.
If they do have rights to the forest, factions within communities may exploit others, or the community as a whole may be exploited by outsiders;
The 'community' may be poorly defined or heterogeneous, or increasing in size due to in-migration and high birth-rates;
The forests are often degraded due to past logging or agricultural activity;
The rewards from new plantations or rehabilitated secondary forests may seem too far away to be worth striving for; Participatory decision-making can be cumbersome and unwieldy; The community may not be interested in maintaining forest cover, preferring to clear it for agriculture or to make money; Communities may lack the technical skill to manage the existing forest or to plant new ones; Communities may not have sufficient capital to establish viable processing facilities. The outside agency that is promoting community forestry may be doing so with a particular outcome in mind, an outcome not necessarily in tune with the wants and needs of the community in question; and, The concept of community forestry on degraded or logged-over land may be acceptable to powerful interests, but it may not have the same level of appeal when applied to primary forests.
Despite these and other obstacles, community forestry also offers opportunity. Local people, who are often blamed for the destruction of the forest, have the opportunity to establish a long-term source of income. Foresters have the opportunity to rediscover the grassroots of their profession. And nations have the opportunity to develop a forest-based industry which has widespread community support.
When community forestry is initiated by an outside agency, the key is undoubtedly partnership. Community forestry requires adoption of 'bottom-up' decision-making - authoritarian approaches have no role. For professional foresters, community forestry may often require a healthy dose of humility, because it is sometimes hard for professionals to admit that they have as much - or more- to learn than the people they are attempting to educate.
Community Forestry:
"Community forestry is a village-level forestry activity, decided on collectively and implemented on communal land, where local populations participate in the planning, establishing, managing and harvesting of forest crops, and so receive a major proportion of the socio-economic and ecological benefits from the forest."- Martel & Whyte, 1992
"Successful community forestry requires... genuine popular participation in decision-making... Experience has proven time and again that participation is more than a development cliche; it is an absolute necessity if goals are to be met. But working with people rather than policing them is a new role for many foresters."- Eckholm et al, 1984
"Community forestry has the following characteristics: the local community controls a clearly and legally defined area of forest; the local community is free from governmental and other outside pressure concerning the utilisation of that forest; if the forestry involves commercial sale of timber or other products, then the community is free from economic exploitation of markets or other pressure from outside forces; the community has long-term security of tenure over the forest and sees its future as being tied to the forest"- J. Revington, Rainforest Information Centre, 1992
"Community forestry, social forestry and rural development forestry are more or less equivalent and reflect Abraham Lincoln's view of democracy - government of the people, by the people, for the people."- J. Burley, Oxford Forestry Institute
"The political dimension of community forestry makes it a venue for people's struggle against domination and exploitation of the community's resources by 'outsiders'. Ecology, equity and social justice are part of this struggle."- Rao, 1991
Rationale of the study:
This study is a case study of Simalchaur Community Forest(SCF) in Khairenitar V D C Tanahun District . This forest is 30 Km to the east from beautiful city Pokhara(A city of tourism) and 170 Km west from the capital city Kathmandu.
This study will be helpful to the policy makers, planners, social organizers of community forestry. It will improve people’s participation in CF. This study will be helpful to reduce the pressured activities on CF.
The study will investigate and analyze the forest resources of SCF . This CF is under pressure by different issues of villagers , forest maphias, misuse of rules and regulations of CF. The study will find out the cause of pressure on CF . It is based on reviewing available primary data, secondary data, literature, documents and reports.
Limitation of the study:
Each and every study has its own limitations. This study also is not an exception . The presentator of this paper being a student , is handicapped by time and economic factors. This study has been focused on small CF. This CF has users groups in ward number 7, 8 and 9 of Khairenitar V D C, Tanahun district. So that the study may not represent totally all the different parts of the country. In fact this research will be limited only on the above objectives.
Study Methodology:
Among 46 Village Development Committees and one municipality of Tanahun district ,only one VDC has been selected as the research area .The causes of selecting this area is :
1. It is a virgin forest.
2.I am a member of user group of this CF.
3.This CF is easily accessible for me.
Nature and sources of data:
To fulfill above research objectives both primary and secondary data are essential. Primary data are taken from CF field, field photographs, observations, interviews etc. Secondary data are derived from relevant books, project documents, journals, unpublished materials, forest user group minute book, office of Simalchaur CF. Khairenitar VDC.
Types of forest in Nepal:
i)National Forest
ii)Private Forest
iii)Religious Forest
iv)Lease hold Forest
v)Community Forest
Achievements of community forestry
Better forest condition, social mobilization, income generation for rural development, institutional building at grass root level.Development of the concepts WID,WAD and GAD. Analysis shows that community forestry in Nepal has been Successful in designing and implementing policies.Two way communication between community forestry user groups and government.25% of the national forest is being managed by more than 35% of the total population.More than 795 CFUGs whose committee members are only women.Gender equity and at least 33% of women in CFUG is compulsory.CFUG have generated more than Rs940 million from sale of forest products (2006),Micro level research studies shows forest condition has improved.Poor and disadvantaged groups are getting benefits from CF.
History of forest act and rules
1.Private forest rule 1918 B.S.
2.Private forest nationalization act 1957
3.Forest act 1961
– forest products sale and distribution rules 1970
– Panchayat forest rules 1978
– Panchayat protected forest rules 1978
– Lease hold forest rules 1978
4.Forest protection special agreement act 1967
The main aim of these act and rules is to establish state control forest land and introduced a strong ‘protection of territory’ but forest area decreased instead of increasing. Far sighted concept of people’s participation in forest mgt came in 1978 Old legislation “keep people out” New legislation “let people protect, manage and utilize.”
Latest forest act 2049b.s. and rules 2051 (with edit 2055)
DFO can hand over part of NF to CFUG.Formation of users group and entry in DFO office.
Preparation of operational plan including detail information by CFUG.Awareness about handling and punishment by DFO.Recording CFUG and CF by DFO.Returning the forest by DFO if CFUG is unable to manage sustain ably
Sustainable management of community forestry
i)Protection and management by users themselves.
ii)Utilization of forest by long term perspectives.
iii)Decision about forest mgt is taken by users themselves.
iv)Equal benefits are allocated to poor and disadvantaged people.
v) Management of forest according to ecological and social requirements.
Profile of the study area:
Location:
The study area is in Khairenitar VDC of Tanahun district.It lies about 19 Km from headquater of Tanahun , Prithvi highway touches this CF. It is situated about at the latitude 28.3 degree northern parallel and the longitude84.4 degree eastern meridian with an elevation 501m to 580m above sea level. This CF is surrounded by Seara, Manapang ,Kota, Gyarsing,Rithabote, Thumka, Duigare and Kaure villages of Khairenitar VDC and Manapang VDC. Archale,Nerathum and Rahale villages are inside this CF.Location of this CF Is given below in the map.
Climate:
The climatic condition of this region is humid sub-tropical.The average temperature in the hottest months of the year June, July, August and September is 36 degree and in the coldest month 3-5 degree in December and January. The annual mean temperature is 23 degree.This forest receives about 2000mm rainfall annually.
Water:
In Khairenitar VDC there are three boarder streams Syande, Kumle and Myagde.The small streams Dharapani, Dhand Khola, Khahare,Gopalsingh,Jamune and Gakuldhuke are originated from this CF.These streams are being used for drinking water and irrigation. All of these are tributaries of Seti river. It has got few spring and indigenous well.
Forest and Vegetation:
Forest is the most valuable and renewable resource of Khairenitar VDC, so that it is being conserved carefully and honestly by user group. The forest covers 576.5 ha land in Khairenitar VDC.The forests are on the hills.The Simalchaur CF covers 80 ha of land. Majority of the forest is covered by virgin Saal, it is about 90% in this CF. So that this CF has very important role in economic status of the people.
The list of major vegetation :
S.N. Common Names Botanical Names
1 Saal Shorea robusta
2 Chilaune Schima wallichi
3 Katus Castanopsis indica
4 Khayar Accacia catechu
5 Tuni Cedrela toona
6 Sisoo Dalbergia sisoo
7 Bans Dentrocalamus strictus
8 Lankuri Fraxinus floribunda
9 Chanp Michelia champaca
10 Pipal Ficus religissa
11 Amala Emblica officinalis
12 Asare Legerstroemia flosreginate
13 Bar Ficus bengalensis
14 Saaj Terminalia alata
15 Bayar Zizyphus jujube
16 Khanayo Ficus cuniabuch
17 Gunyalo Elaragrus parvifolicwall
18 Budhi-Dhayaro Lagerstoroenia indica
19 Amriso Thysanolaen maxima
20 Jamun Syzygium cumini
21 Imili Tamarindus indica
22 Bhalayo Semecardus anacardium
23 Barro Terminellia bellerica
24 Harro Terminellia chebula
25 Aanp Magnifera indica
26 Kadam Anthocephalus cadamba
27 Dhobini Mussenda frondosa
28 Chhatiban Alstonia scholaris
29 Bhorlo Bauhinia vahlii
30 Rohini Malotus philipinesis
31 Bel Aegle mormelus
32 Khar Themeda villosa
Animals and birds:
1.Monkey,2.Leopard,3.Fox,4.Bear,5. Rabbit,6.Jackal, 7.Vulture,8.Parrot,9.Dove,10.Cooku
11.Jungle cat,12.Owl,13.Xema,14.Crow,15.Starline,16.Sparow,17.Duck,19.Deer. Monkeys are major wild animal of this CF.
Caste and Ethnic Composition:
There are different types of castes in user group of Simalchaur CF , the following table show the composition of societies in user groups of CF:
S. N. Group Houses
1 Brahmin 90
2 Kumal 65
3 Sarki 42
4 Kami 40
5 Magar 20
6 Chhetri 16
7 Newar 16
8 Gurung 12
9 Giri(Sannyasi) 10
10 Bhujel 10
11 Damai 10
12 Others 6
13 Total 331
Study findings and discussion:
1. Formation of Forest user committee:
It is formed by the general meeting of forest user group. The forest user committee consists of only 11 members. The structure of forest user committee are as follow:
Chairperson ,Vice chairperson, Secretary, Vice secretary& Treasurer one each and 6 members are elected by user group member in general meeting.The tenure of each committee is three years. Members of the committee are from forest user group, social workers, mother groups and clubs. Present committee is as follow:
S.N. Post Name
1 Chairperson Nar Nath Ghimire
2 Vice-chairperson Netra Bahadur Sarki
3 Secretary Khadananda Poudel
4 Vice-secretary Saraswati Giri
5 Treasurer Laxmi Ghimire
6 Member Haribhakta Timsina
7 Member Chija B K
8 Member Gunja Man B K
9 Member Jas Bahadur Nepali(Sarki)
10 Member Sushila Kumal
11 Member Buddhi Bahadur Ale
2. Forest User Group:
Only the persons whose field or home is in Khairenitar VDC ward number 7 are the general members of the forest user group.If any member is against rule of CF or forest act ,her/his work is unsatisfactory , is avoided by the rules of CF. If the member who submitted from the committee realizes crime and beg-pardon ,the committee will think about this and again they could include in the committee. Separated families from the same group/area and immigrants of ward number 7 of Khairenitar VDC, qualified people from the legislation will be the members of forest user group.Forest user group were divided into two groups Ka and Kha as their residential character , in present situation only one group is there.
3.Forest Guard:
To watch and inform the committee as well as to regulate rules of CF, a guard has been managed by user group, salary of forest guard is collected through grant or levy from every household in each year. Forest guard is also a component of CF.
4.Office:
Simalchaur community forest has its own office to conduct different activities of CF. It is a concrete building near Prithvi Highway. Code of conduct are listed in this office to inform the user group and others. It is regularly opened by secretary and vice-secretary. The office collect grant and levy from households. It also manages general meeting, seminar and awareness programs .
5.Blocks:
Simalchaur CF is divided into four blocks. They are called Rahale, Simalchaur, Kalaban and Gakuldhuke. They cover 21 ha, 17.5 ha, 19.5 ha and 23 ha respectively.Blocks are making easy to care and use forest resources per year.
6.Boundary:
There is no any fixed boundary of this CF, as well as its blocks. But the office has maps of blocks and map of CF.Some small villages are inside the CF.
7.Grazing:
Cattles are brought into the four blocks to graze because there are no grass land for cattle.Most of the herds cut trees during cattle feeding inside the forest. This is an important cause of degradation of forest or pressure on the forest. The cattle herds stole fire wood and timber regularly.It is not well managed in this CF.
8.Firing:
Forest fire is strictly prohibited in this CF, if some one who sets fire in the forest is punished according to forest act as well as CF act according to decision of user committee .If forest fire is seen in the forest ,user group inform instantly and extinguished fire by following ways:
i)By drawing fire lines
ii)By using green branches of trees
iii) By using soil and water according to availability.
9. Illegal cutting:
i)People in the buffer area are cutting fire wood regularly because of lack of fuel.
ii)People in the buffer area are suffering from wild animals by damaging crops and killing cattle day by day.So people are led to cut trees.
iii)Some poachers also cut trees during their illegal hunting.
iv)Khayar trees are cutting by wood maphia.
v)Some people are promoting to settle in buffer area.
vi)Some are interesting to use forest as their private resource.
vii)The forest encroacher leading to make private forest.
Political Value:
Four parties are in majority, they are Unified CPN, UML, Nepali congress and Rastriya Janamukti Party.There is no any influence of political parties in this CF. They are helping to conserve the forest resources as well as wild animals in this CF.No any conflict on using forest resources as well as conservation. If any member of any political party is against CF will faced a lots of difficulties in his/her social life. Few years ago a family was encroaching the block number four called Gakuldhuke, was punished by user group as well as other member of that society.
Economic value of CF:
Forest is the major natural resource of Khairenitar VDC, it is providing natural beauty, spring for drinking water, water supply for irrigation from streams of CF, leaves for making Duna and Tapari by which 56 women are getting job with the help of KhairenitarBahudesiyaMahilaBikashKendra . Woods for homes during harvesting the forest. Grass for farmed cattle. Timbers are providing to school, mother group, clubs and families of user group .
Methods of valuing forest products and service in Nepal.
i)Forest products
ii)General ecological and environmental values
iii)Eco-tourism
iv)Soil- conservation
v)Bio- diversity conservation value
vi)Carbon-sequestration value
How economic value measure ?
Economic value can be measured by the amount of money an individual is willing to pay (WTP) for a good or service. The amount of money an individual is willing to accept (WTA) as a compensation for forgoing the good or service. Willing to pay and willing to accept are measures that can be revealed in exchange.
Component of use value:
Use value captures indirect use i.e. indirect use is related to special functions of some ecosystems, provide habitats for wildlife, Forest act as carbon sinks, Prevent soil erosion, Encourage soil production, Wetlands offer flood control,Trap nutrients and sediments.
Option value component:
People may be willingly to pay for preserving biodiversity or genetic materials to ensure the option of having these goods in the future. There is no consensus even among environmental economists as to exact placement of option value among use and nonuse component, Some consider option value to be one of the use component,Option value allowing to capture both future use and nonuse benefit
Non-use value component:
Existence value
Some people derive satisfaction from the fact that many endangered species are protected against extinction, people are willingly to pay for protection of these species habitats ,Those value most likely never travel to these places, or see the species
Bequest value
Nonuse component, Many of us are concerned with future damages from global warming and would be willingly to reduce them ,Environmental valuation: This is also direct benefits which are relevant in environmental valuation. Direct use of value,Indirect use of value, Non-use value, Intrinsic
So , total economic value = direct use value + indirect use value + nonuse value + intrinsic value
Direct use value:
Goods and services directly consumed by users,Products (edible, ornamental medicinal input into production process),Recreation,Waste assimilation, Research,Education .Some families of CFUG are fully depend upon forest product to continue their daily life,which is direct use value.Saal trees and fire wood which are selling in the market by users.
Indirect use value:
It is the indirect benefit arising from ecological systems. Biological support---links to other species and habitats, Physical protection--- coastal defense function, Climate regulation, Global life support --- functions that aid in supporting life on earth .CFUG has got drinking water ,water for irrigation , natural beauty etc.
Non use value: It is the sum of existence, option, quasi-option and bequest values. Some animal and plants found in this CF provide this type of value.
Intrinsic value :
CF user group belief that all organisms have a worth of their own regardless of usefulness to human.
Social Value:
This CF is in the eastern side of Khairenitar VDC, providing natural beauty, place for recreation, shelter for wild animals, medicinal herbs, springs, streams, timber production, leaves, organic fertilizers, a major source for carbon sink etc , so that it has an important role in the society of this area.
Cultural Value:
In the top of block no two, which is called Simalchaur has got several temple of goddess , worshiped by Brahmin, Chhetri, Sarki, Damai, Giri and Magar. Few indigenous well and taps are there for water supply. Bar and Pipal trees are conserved because of Hindu tradition, that is why forest is being preserved.
Problems of Forest Management:
1.Lack of consciousness among the forest users.
2.Lack of responsibility regular observation.
3.Theft of forest resources , not known about the importance of forest conservation.
4.Problem of forest weed hoe ,plantation and contradiction.
5.Difficult to prohibit cutting of fire wood in necessary time.
6.People or the user group near CF or buffer zone has got financial problems because of non-provision getting income source .
7.The number of forest guard are less in number.
8.At the first time user group were divided into two groups Ka and Kha to use resources ,so that there were conflicts.
9.Fear of wild animals.
10.Reduction of crops by wild animals.
11.Deforestation by herds, poachers, wood thefts, grazing, and privatization.
12.Cultivation near buffer area.
Suggestions and Recommendation:
1.Forest user group has lack of education about conservation of forest so it is essential to educate them.
2.FUG should provide trainings about forest management.
3.Management of wood, fire wood, grass, and other resources to user group must be transparent.
4.To take forest commission and grant economic co-operation for user group.
5.Poor user group near buffer area should alter their profession with the management of forest user committee.
6.Rules and regulations as well as code of conduct must be informed to user group.
7.There should be advertisement of CF by showing fruitful documentary .
8.There should be provision of punishment to those who indulge in forest encroachment.
9.Plantation should be promoted in all blocks of community forest.
10.Animal grazing inside the CF should be stopped by managing grass land to cattle of farmers.
11.There should be equal treatment to the people rather than providing individual benefit.
12.Informations should be promoted in the time of cutting trees or harvesting the forest resources.
13.Blocks should be fenced or boundary should be clear to user group.
14.Forest committee’s work should be honest according to their responsibilities.
15.Conciousness should be promoted with the help of District Forest Office(DFO).
16.Training need to be given about people’s participation in CF from government level to FUG.
17.Private plantation of suitable species should be encouraged which reduces the people’s pressure on the forest and also help to fulfill the daily demand of people.
18. Furniture and wood works which are closer to this CF should watched by FUGC strictly.
Result of study:
Simalchaur forest was depleted by different causes in the past,degraded forest handed by government to CFUG has improved under community management,conduction and management of forest is being well. User’s awareness is increasing,Women participation is increasing.Women are successful to manage the forest in difficult situation.User’s participation is increasing in managing natural resources. Participation of the people in CF can be divided into six different criteria for effective people’s participation. They are conceptualization and identification, decision making, mass participation in resource mobilization, mass participation in implementation, mass sharing benefits evaluation and control. These activities are being using in this Simalchaur Community Forest(SCF).Improvement on degraded environment,User’s income is increasing.Gender equity is maintained.The pressure on the forest is being reduced because of women participation, forest acts, code of conduct and active responsibilities of user group.
References:
1. Pradhan, Charlse, Class Note EESD505 Natural Resources, Environment and Social Justice 13th September 2009.
2.Office Minute of Simalchaur Community Forest 2009,Photo copy provided by Khairenitar Village Development Committee.
3.Vergera, N. T. (1984), Agro forestry system under CF, concept, classification and use in Humid Tropics. Bankok.
4.Ghimire, Kamal Mohan,Principal Suryodaya Higher Secondary School, Khairenitar Tanahun.
5.Wikipedia
6. Community and private forestry programmed in Nepal, department of forest
7.Forest act 2049 and rules 2051 (with 2055), ministry of forest, forest div. project
8.Some medical plants, department of forest
9.B.K.Gunja Man ,member of Simalchaur community forest ,Tanahun Nepal.
10. David Julian - North East Forest Alliance
EDUC 515
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Keshav Raj Ghimire
An Assignment
Submitted to
I.P. Pokharel, Tutor
School of Education
Katmandu University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the course EDUC 515 Foundations of Education of M.Ed. in EESD
Balkumari, Lalitpur
November 2009
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Social stratification is the classification of society in different recognizable- identical groups. So, stratification means social diversity and differentiation. For example, in a society there are many classes like farmers, businessman, rich, poor, elite persons, teachers , male female, white , black, upper caste, lower caste, Hindu, Muslim, etc. such diversity of society is called social stratification. They are different by their profession or their level, by their social norms values, traditions, economic status or their prestige etc.
To have the clear concept of social stratification, we need to learn some definitions of some scholars.
According to Gilbert "Social stratification is the division of society in to permanent groups or categories linked with each other by relationship of superiority and subordination."
P. W. Murray says "Social stratification is a horizontal division of society into higher and lowers social units."
“It is the economic status that forms the basis of social stratification”. Karl Marx.
So, after studying the definitions stated above, we can say that social stratification is the identical divisions on the basis of social traditions, cultures, economic status, political aspects, class, and races and so on. A system in which a group of people are divided into layers or rankings based on their relative properties, prestige, and power. Resources and opportunities can also be distributed among various social factors on the basis of social stratifications.
Patterns of social stratification
The pattern of social stratification depends upon the causes of stratification. Generally, the physical and mental ability of an individual, energy, qualification, talent, behavior, social, political, economic and cultural situations are the causes of social stratification. Following are the different patterns of social stratification-
1. Sexual stratification –Male, female, their interest, needs, physical differences
2. Age stratification – Child, youth, old- their abilities, interest, needs, behavior.
3. Racial stratification –Higher class, lower class, white, black, lower caste, upper caste and different traditions accordingly.
4. Class stratification –Rich, poor, Boss, slave class
5. Economic stratification –Main cause of stratifications, poor, rich etc.
6. Religious stratification –On the basis of religious norms and values- Hindu, Muslim, Christian etc.
7. Political stratification –On the basis of getting power of government, ruling party, apposition party.
In this way, we find various stratifications in our society and social patterning totally depend on such stratifications and get their identifications as well. It has great effects on the life style of the people, on the institutional pattern of conduct, on the values, attitudes and ideologies and so on.
Theoretical positions on social stratification
Theoretical positions on social stratifications refer to how various kinds of social stratification occur. In this regard there are four popular theories. They are –
1. Divine Theory
According to this theory, the theoretical base of social stratification is towards the god. It means it is the god who has divided every person as black, white, rich, poor, male, female, lower casts, upper caste, capable, incapable etc and set the different traditions, norms and values. So, this theory believes that God is the creator of social stratification and all have to accept it without question. If anyone breaks the system then, he\ she should be punished.
2. Marxian position
Karl Marx has propounded this theory. According to him economic status forms the basis of social stratification. In the society every people needs different kind of goods. The capacity of producing those essential goods only on the hands of limited people. So, he predicted that rich people would get richer and richer and the poor one poorer and there would be always class struggle between the two groups Burjuwa and proletarian So, there is only one way to wipe out such tradition, that is Revolution which would ensure and communism would replace capitalism.
Change
He believes that all of the nature” from the smallest thing to the biggest from a grain of sand to the sun….to man, is in a ceaseless laws of movement and change. History is the process of change from one era to another in accordance with the rigorous and inexorable laws of historical motion. He has talked two kinds of change- quantitative-the base form and qualitative change – optimum change. For any change, it takes time and the change passes through real history. Here, changes mean the emergence of new structures, novel forms. Quantitative alternations of things lead to something qualitatively new.
Unity and conflict
Law of Opposites
According to Karl Marx, everything in existence is a unity of opposites and contains mutually incompatible and exclusive but nevertheless equally essential and indispensable parts or aspects. This unity of opposites is what makes each entity and provides a constant motivation for movement and change. Some opposites are antagonistic as in the competition between capitalists and labors. Factories owners offer the lowest wages possible, while workers seek the highest wages. Sometimes, this antagonism sparks strikes or lockouts.
Law of Negation
According to this theory, entities in the nature tend to negate themselves in order to advance or reproduce a higher quantity. The nature of opposition which causes conflict in each element and gives it motion also tends to negate the thing itself. It very clearly states that the fundamental thing of change is inside it, just like the same as an example of egg and chicken. It means revolution starts within it and change occurs within it. In society, we have the case of class. This illustrates that the the cycle of negation is eternal, as each class creates its’ Gravedigger”, its successor, as soon as it finishes burying its creator.
3. Weberian position
According to Weber there are three major elements are taken as a power which plays the role for social stratification they are-
i. Political power
ii. Economic power
iii. Status
These three things are closely related with each other. Economic power helps to raise the political power and vice versa and both of them increase the status of an individual. The people who have political power his economic status and prestige also become high. Likewise the people of high status obviously have good political power and economic conditions.
4. Functionalist position
Each person who lives in the society has the different profession and functions. By which each society looks different. The functions of some societies are very important and some are less important. Therefore, the priority is also given differently according to the roles of each society. According to T. Parson social stratification is necessary to develop the society. If there is no stratification, there is no competition. If there is no competition, there is no development of society. It shows that meritocracy exists in our society. I f we work hard we can achieve anything- rewards and success are commensurate with hard work and ability. Inequality and stratification are natural and necessary for the functioning of society.
5. Conflict theorist position
This conflict theory is related with Dahrendorf. According to him the major cause of social stratification is social conflict. There are different conflict groups in the society and there is the conflict among them. Power and authority are the major causes of conflict. The group who has no power and authority tries to take from another group. There are four types of stratification as a result of conflict among the groups.
i. The ruling group : ruling party of a country
ii. The service class : who helps for ruling group i.e. personnel and other classes
iii. The subjected group : public ( who are under i and ii )
iv. The intellectuals : free persons (i and ii also can not affect them)
6. Synthetic theory
Lenski has developed this theory combining or synthesizing all Marxian, Webrian, functionalist and conflict theories of stratification. According to him distribution system is the only one cause of social stratification. Distribution system consists-
i. Distribution of survival needs - food, water, shelter etc.
ii. Distribution of power: political power and other powers.
iii. Distribution of privilege: rights, advantages, grants, etc.
iv. Distribution of prestige: reputation, importance etc.
Distribution of all those things should be equal to the each individual, society and community. If there is no equal distribution the conflict arises and social stratification appears.
Social class
The forms of social stratification can be divided into different categories. Social class also considered as one of the forms of social stratification. The following are the major forms of social stratification-
1. Slavery: It was existed many years ago both in the eastern and western countries. They were not considered as the citizen of their country and they did not have any voting rights also. Especially black people were in this category.
2. Estate: There are three types of estate-
i. The lords of spiritual: Priests, chairman of church and other status group.
ii. The lords of temporal: merchant etc.
ii. The commons: general people or public.
3. Caste: There is discrimination between caste systems even in our country. There are many castes according to their profession and so on. But now a day it is considered as the surname or title.
4. Social class: In many countries it is considered that there are three types of social class according to their economic, agriculture, religion, political, social condition like-
i. Upper class
ii. Middle class
iii. Lower class
Social class can be defined as a level in society made up of people who consider themselves equals due to similarities in family background, level of education, occupation, race and attitudes towards social issues.
Conclusion
To sum up, the classification of society in different recognizable- identical groups by their profession or their level, by their social norms values, traditions, economic status or their prestige etc. gives each society an identity, a kind of value. Resources and opportunities can also be distributed among various social factors on the basis of social stratifications. Although there are various criteria of social stratification, they may be the identity of the people and on the basis of which the change appears in the society. Because of the social stratification, great change, great revolutions have been seen in the world. So, social stratification is the agent catalyst of revolution that leads to the great change, development of the society. But the discrimination between the various classes, divisions should be wiped out slowly and gradually.
References:
Aggarwal, J.C. (1985). Theory and principles of education. Delhi: Vikas publication house.
Wagley, M.P. (2003). Foundations of education. Kathmandu:
Pokharel. I.P. (2009). Course Pack. Katmandu: KU photocopy centre.
Sharma, C. (2006). Foundations of education. Katmandu: M.K.publishers and distributors.
Keshav Raj Ghimire
An Assignment
Submitted to
I.P. Pokharel, Tutor
School of Education
Katmandu University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the course EDUC 515 Foundations of Education of M.Ed. in EESD
Balkumari, Lalitpur
November 2009
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Social stratification is the classification of society in different recognizable- identical groups. So, stratification means social diversity and differentiation. For example, in a society there are many classes like farmers, businessman, rich, poor, elite persons, teachers , male female, white , black, upper caste, lower caste, Hindu, Muslim, etc. such diversity of society is called social stratification. They are different by their profession or their level, by their social norms values, traditions, economic status or their prestige etc.
To have the clear concept of social stratification, we need to learn some definitions of some scholars.
According to Gilbert "Social stratification is the division of society in to permanent groups or categories linked with each other by relationship of superiority and subordination."
P. W. Murray says "Social stratification is a horizontal division of society into higher and lowers social units."
“It is the economic status that forms the basis of social stratification”. Karl Marx.
So, after studying the definitions stated above, we can say that social stratification is the identical divisions on the basis of social traditions, cultures, economic status, political aspects, class, and races and so on. A system in which a group of people are divided into layers or rankings based on their relative properties, prestige, and power. Resources and opportunities can also be distributed among various social factors on the basis of social stratifications.
Patterns of social stratification
The pattern of social stratification depends upon the causes of stratification. Generally, the physical and mental ability of an individual, energy, qualification, talent, behavior, social, political, economic and cultural situations are the causes of social stratification. Following are the different patterns of social stratification-
1. Sexual stratification –Male, female, their interest, needs, physical differences
2. Age stratification – Child, youth, old- their abilities, interest, needs, behavior.
3. Racial stratification –Higher class, lower class, white, black, lower caste, upper caste and different traditions accordingly.
4. Class stratification –Rich, poor, Boss, slave class
5. Economic stratification –Main cause of stratifications, poor, rich etc.
6. Religious stratification –On the basis of religious norms and values- Hindu, Muslim, Christian etc.
7. Political stratification –On the basis of getting power of government, ruling party, apposition party.
In this way, we find various stratifications in our society and social patterning totally depend on such stratifications and get their identifications as well. It has great effects on the life style of the people, on the institutional pattern of conduct, on the values, attitudes and ideologies and so on.
Theoretical positions on social stratification
Theoretical positions on social stratifications refer to how various kinds of social stratification occur. In this regard there are four popular theories. They are –
1. Divine Theory
According to this theory, the theoretical base of social stratification is towards the god. It means it is the god who has divided every person as black, white, rich, poor, male, female, lower casts, upper caste, capable, incapable etc and set the different traditions, norms and values. So, this theory believes that God is the creator of social stratification and all have to accept it without question. If anyone breaks the system then, he\ she should be punished.
2. Marxian position
Karl Marx has propounded this theory. According to him economic status forms the basis of social stratification. In the society every people needs different kind of goods. The capacity of producing those essential goods only on the hands of limited people. So, he predicted that rich people would get richer and richer and the poor one poorer and there would be always class struggle between the two groups Burjuwa and proletarian So, there is only one way to wipe out such tradition, that is Revolution which would ensure and communism would replace capitalism.
Change
He believes that all of the nature” from the smallest thing to the biggest from a grain of sand to the sun….to man, is in a ceaseless laws of movement and change. History is the process of change from one era to another in accordance with the rigorous and inexorable laws of historical motion. He has talked two kinds of change- quantitative-the base form and qualitative change – optimum change. For any change, it takes time and the change passes through real history. Here, changes mean the emergence of new structures, novel forms. Quantitative alternations of things lead to something qualitatively new.
Unity and conflict
Law of Opposites
According to Karl Marx, everything in existence is a unity of opposites and contains mutually incompatible and exclusive but nevertheless equally essential and indispensable parts or aspects. This unity of opposites is what makes each entity and provides a constant motivation for movement and change. Some opposites are antagonistic as in the competition between capitalists and labors. Factories owners offer the lowest wages possible, while workers seek the highest wages. Sometimes, this antagonism sparks strikes or lockouts.
Law of Negation
According to this theory, entities in the nature tend to negate themselves in order to advance or reproduce a higher quantity. The nature of opposition which causes conflict in each element and gives it motion also tends to negate the thing itself. It very clearly states that the fundamental thing of change is inside it, just like the same as an example of egg and chicken. It means revolution starts within it and change occurs within it. In society, we have the case of class. This illustrates that the the cycle of negation is eternal, as each class creates its’ Gravedigger”, its successor, as soon as it finishes burying its creator.
3. Weberian position
According to Weber there are three major elements are taken as a power which plays the role for social stratification they are-
i. Political power
ii. Economic power
iii. Status
These three things are closely related with each other. Economic power helps to raise the political power and vice versa and both of them increase the status of an individual. The people who have political power his economic status and prestige also become high. Likewise the people of high status obviously have good political power and economic conditions.
4. Functionalist position
Each person who lives in the society has the different profession and functions. By which each society looks different. The functions of some societies are very important and some are less important. Therefore, the priority is also given differently according to the roles of each society. According to T. Parson social stratification is necessary to develop the society. If there is no stratification, there is no competition. If there is no competition, there is no development of society. It shows that meritocracy exists in our society. I f we work hard we can achieve anything- rewards and success are commensurate with hard work and ability. Inequality and stratification are natural and necessary for the functioning of society.
5. Conflict theorist position
This conflict theory is related with Dahrendorf. According to him the major cause of social stratification is social conflict. There are different conflict groups in the society and there is the conflict among them. Power and authority are the major causes of conflict. The group who has no power and authority tries to take from another group. There are four types of stratification as a result of conflict among the groups.
i. The ruling group : ruling party of a country
ii. The service class : who helps for ruling group i.e. personnel and other classes
iii. The subjected group : public ( who are under i and ii )
iv. The intellectuals : free persons (i and ii also can not affect them)
6. Synthetic theory
Lenski has developed this theory combining or synthesizing all Marxian, Webrian, functionalist and conflict theories of stratification. According to him distribution system is the only one cause of social stratification. Distribution system consists-
i. Distribution of survival needs - food, water, shelter etc.
ii. Distribution of power: political power and other powers.
iii. Distribution of privilege: rights, advantages, grants, etc.
iv. Distribution of prestige: reputation, importance etc.
Distribution of all those things should be equal to the each individual, society and community. If there is no equal distribution the conflict arises and social stratification appears.
Social class
The forms of social stratification can be divided into different categories. Social class also considered as one of the forms of social stratification. The following are the major forms of social stratification-
1. Slavery: It was existed many years ago both in the eastern and western countries. They were not considered as the citizen of their country and they did not have any voting rights also. Especially black people were in this category.
2. Estate: There are three types of estate-
i. The lords of spiritual: Priests, chairman of church and other status group.
ii. The lords of temporal: merchant etc.
ii. The commons: general people or public.
3. Caste: There is discrimination between caste systems even in our country. There are many castes according to their profession and so on. But now a day it is considered as the surname or title.
4. Social class: In many countries it is considered that there are three types of social class according to their economic, agriculture, religion, political, social condition like-
i. Upper class
ii. Middle class
iii. Lower class
Social class can be defined as a level in society made up of people who consider themselves equals due to similarities in family background, level of education, occupation, race and attitudes towards social issues.
Conclusion
To sum up, the classification of society in different recognizable- identical groups by their profession or their level, by their social norms values, traditions, economic status or their prestige etc. gives each society an identity, a kind of value. Resources and opportunities can also be distributed among various social factors on the basis of social stratifications. Although there are various criteria of social stratification, they may be the identity of the people and on the basis of which the change appears in the society. Because of the social stratification, great change, great revolutions have been seen in the world. So, social stratification is the agent catalyst of revolution that leads to the great change, development of the society. But the discrimination between the various classes, divisions should be wiped out slowly and gradually.
References:
Aggarwal, J.C. (1985). Theory and principles of education. Delhi: Vikas publication house.
Wagley, M.P. (2003). Foundations of education. Kathmandu:
Pokharel. I.P. (2009). Course Pack. Katmandu: KU photocopy centre.
Sharma, C. (2006). Foundations of education. Katmandu: M.K.publishers and distributors.
EDUC 401
APA STYLE CLASSROOM ASSIGNMENT
Prepared By:
Keshav Raj Ghimire
Assignment
Submitted to
Dhanapati Subedi
Course Facilitator ,EESD 401
School of Education
Kathmandu University
In the partial fulfillment of the course EESD 401, Study Skill and Academic Writing in Environment Education and Sustainable Development
Presented on 4th November,2009
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of contents i
APA STYLE in ASSIGNMENT 1
Introduction 1
Page setup 1
Page setup in APA style has following dimensions, which are separated in margins, paper size, paragraphs, general alignments, spacing and indentation 1
Margins 1
Paper size 1
Paragraphs 2
General alignments : 2
Spacing : 2
Indetation: 2
Heading for Assignment 2
Level Five: 2
Level One: 2
Level Two: 2
Sixth Edition of APA 2
Citation in TheText: 3
Citations in a Reference List: 3
APA STYLE IN ASSIGNMENT
Introduction
The full form of APA is American Psychological Association .This institution provides a lots of ideas and way to develop skill of students, researchers, planners, social workers etc, they should present their study, research, thesis, dissertation, assignments etc in a format. The APA Provides us a style of writing different proposals . American Psychological Association (APA) style is a widely accepted style of documentation, particularly in the social sciences. APA style specifies the names and order of headings, formatting, and organization of citations and references, and the arrangement of tables, figures, footnotes, and appendices, as well as other manuscript and documentation features. APA style uses the author-date style of parenthetical referencing, with such source citations keyed to a subsequent list of "References." Also known as the Harvard Style [1]. The APA Publication Manual provides basic guidelines for documenting both print and electronic resources. The section on electronic resources is updated and supplemented by the APA Style Guide to Electronic References (APA, 2007).
Here is a sample style of classroom assignment .
Page setup
Page setup in APA style has following dimensions, which are separated in margins, paper size, paragraphs, general alignments, spacing and indentation
Margins
(L=1”, R=1”, T=1”, other default) ,Orientation: Portrait,
Paper size
A4 size is appropriate size in APA style, this size has 21 cm times 29.5cm sized paper.
Paragraphs
Normal body text
General alignments :
font 12 pt, Times New Roman, Regular( No italic, no bold,no underline, Automatic colour).
Spacing :
before 0, After 0, Line spacing Double
Indetation:
first paragraph L=0, R=0, but other following paragraphs L=0.5, R=0 under the same heading heading.
Heading for Assignment
In an assignment more than three headings are not used. That mean three levels are sufficient for assignment .If three levels are sufficient level five, level one and level two are used. These levels have following measures;
Level Five:
CENTERED UPPERCASE HEADING, Before:0, After:36
Level One:
Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading , Before:0, After:12
Level Two:
Centered Italicized Bold Uppercase and Lowercase Heading, Before:12, After:6
Sixth Edition of APA
This handout is based on the 6th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA), but is not a comprehensive guide. For all rules and requirements of APA citations, please consult the 6th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. APA requires that information be cited in 2 different ways—within the text and in a reference list at the end of the paper. The reference list should be on a new page, double spaced, and use the hanging indent method (all lines after the first one are indented).
Citation in TheText:
APA uses the author-date method of citation. The last name of the author and the date of publication are inserted in the text in the appropriate place. When referencing or summarizing a source, provide the author and year. When quoting or summarizing a particular passage, include the specific page or paragraph number, as well. When quoting in your paper, if a direct quote is less than 40 words, incorporate it into your text and use quotation marks. If a direct quote is more than 40 words, make the quotation a free-standing indented block of text and DO NOT use quotation marks.
Citations in a Reference List:
In general, references should contain the author name, publication date, title, and publication information. Include the issue number if the journal is paginated by issue.
For information obtained electronically or online include the DOI:
DOI - a unique alphanumeric string assigned to identify content and provide a persistent link to its location on the internet. The DOI is typically located on the first page of the electronic journal article near the copyright notice. When a DOI is used in your citation, no other retrieval information is needed. Use this format for the DOI in references. If no DOI has been assigned to the content, provide the home page URL of the journal or of the book or report publisher. Do not insert a hyphen if you need to break a URL across lines; do not add a period after a URL, to prevent the impression that the period is part of the URL. In general, it is not necessary to include database information. Do not include retrieval dates unless the source material has changed over time.
Prepared By:
Keshav Raj Ghimire
Assignment
Submitted to
Dhanapati Subedi
Course Facilitator ,EESD 401
School of Education
Kathmandu University
In the partial fulfillment of the course EESD 401, Study Skill and Academic Writing in Environment Education and Sustainable Development
Presented on 4th November,2009
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of contents i
APA STYLE in ASSIGNMENT 1
Introduction 1
Page setup 1
Page setup in APA style has following dimensions, which are separated in margins, paper size, paragraphs, general alignments, spacing and indentation 1
Margins 1
Paper size 1
Paragraphs 2
General alignments : 2
Spacing : 2
Indetation: 2
Heading for Assignment 2
Level Five: 2
Level One: 2
Level Two: 2
Sixth Edition of APA 2
Citation in TheText: 3
Citations in a Reference List: 3
APA STYLE IN ASSIGNMENT
Introduction
The full form of APA is American Psychological Association .This institution provides a lots of ideas and way to develop skill of students, researchers, planners, social workers etc, they should present their study, research, thesis, dissertation, assignments etc in a format. The APA Provides us a style of writing different proposals . American Psychological Association (APA) style is a widely accepted style of documentation, particularly in the social sciences. APA style specifies the names and order of headings, formatting, and organization of citations and references, and the arrangement of tables, figures, footnotes, and appendices, as well as other manuscript and documentation features. APA style uses the author-date style of parenthetical referencing, with such source citations keyed to a subsequent list of "References." Also known as the Harvard Style [1]. The APA Publication Manual provides basic guidelines for documenting both print and electronic resources. The section on electronic resources is updated and supplemented by the APA Style Guide to Electronic References (APA, 2007).
Here is a sample style of classroom assignment .
Page setup
Page setup in APA style has following dimensions, which are separated in margins, paper size, paragraphs, general alignments, spacing and indentation
Margins
(L=1”, R=1”, T=1”, other default) ,Orientation: Portrait,
Paper size
A4 size is appropriate size in APA style, this size has 21 cm times 29.5cm sized paper.
Paragraphs
Normal body text
General alignments :
font 12 pt, Times New Roman, Regular( No italic, no bold,no underline, Automatic colour).
Spacing :
before 0, After 0, Line spacing Double
Indetation:
first paragraph L=0, R=0, but other following paragraphs L=0.5, R=0 under the same heading heading.
Heading for Assignment
In an assignment more than three headings are not used. That mean three levels are sufficient for assignment .If three levels are sufficient level five, level one and level two are used. These levels have following measures;
Level Five:
CENTERED UPPERCASE HEADING, Before:0, After:36
Level One:
Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading , Before:0, After:12
Level Two:
Centered Italicized Bold Uppercase and Lowercase Heading, Before:12, After:6
Sixth Edition of APA
This handout is based on the 6th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA), but is not a comprehensive guide. For all rules and requirements of APA citations, please consult the 6th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. APA requires that information be cited in 2 different ways—within the text and in a reference list at the end of the paper. The reference list should be on a new page, double spaced, and use the hanging indent method (all lines after the first one are indented).
Citation in TheText:
APA uses the author-date method of citation. The last name of the author and the date of publication are inserted in the text in the appropriate place. When referencing or summarizing a source, provide the author and year. When quoting or summarizing a particular passage, include the specific page or paragraph number, as well. When quoting in your paper, if a direct quote is less than 40 words, incorporate it into your text and use quotation marks. If a direct quote is more than 40 words, make the quotation a free-standing indented block of text and DO NOT use quotation marks.
Citations in a Reference List:
In general, references should contain the author name, publication date, title, and publication information. Include the issue number if the journal is paginated by issue.
For information obtained electronically or online include the DOI:
DOI - a unique alphanumeric string assigned to identify content and provide a persistent link to its location on the internet. The DOI is typically located on the first page of the electronic journal article near the copyright notice. When a DOI is used in your citation, no other retrieval information is needed. Use this format for the DOI in references. If no DOI has been assigned to the content, provide the home page URL of the journal or of the book or report publisher. Do not insert a hyphen if you need to break a URL across lines; do not add a period after a URL, to prevent the impression that the period is part of the URL. In general, it is not necessary to include database information. Do not include retrieval dates unless the source material has changed over time.
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