केशवराज घिमिरे/ KESHAV RAJ GHIMIRE: May 2026

Sagarmatha National Park

Sagarmatha National Park
Abstract

This study is focused on “Understanding Biodiversity Conservation and Vegetation of Sagarmatha National Park Solukhumbu. This study was carried out in the proposed books(Ukesh Raj Bhuju et al Biodiversity Resource Book); and resource persons of Department of National Park and Wildlife Conservation(DNPWC) of Nepal and its website; Google Earth search on Protected Area, Haufler, Cooperrider, CBD report 2009. The study aims to understand ecology, economy and social strata in proposed National Park. The problems and issues are criticized to improve the condition of natural resources . Some major Methods included were secondary data analysis and different reports, websites, WebPages. It will provide few recommendations for improving and implementing policy and programs.

Introduction

Location

Sagarmatha National Park is located to the north-east of Kathmandu in the Solukhumbu, district of Nepal( 27°45'-28°07'N, 86°28'-87°07'E). It was established in 19^th July 1976. It has covered an area of 1148 square Kilometres.The park includes the highest peak in the world, Mt. Sagarmatha (Everest), and several other well-known peaks such as Lhotse, Nuptse, Cho Oyu, Pumori, Ama Dablam, Thamserku, Kwangde, Kangtaiga and Gyachung Kang. The park was added to the list of World Heritage Sites in 1979.A lots of endangered species are found in this park. This park is very famous for tourists because of Mt. Everest. The best season to visit this park is October, November, December to February. This park has one buffer zone which is mainlt situated in Chaunrikharka VDCs having 1288 households and 5896 population with 275 square kilometres . Namche, Khumjung and Chaunrikharka are the VDCs of the park.There are 8 buffer community forests.

The main settlements are Namche Bazar, Khumjung, Khunde, Thame, Thyangboche, Pangboche and Phortse. The economy of the Khumbu Sherpa community has traditionally been heavily based on trade and livestock herding. But with the coming of international mountaineering expeditions since 1950 and the influx of foreign trekkers, the Sherpa economy today is becoming increasingly dependent on tourism.

Flora

Pine and hemlock forests are found at the lower elevations of the park. Above 3500m, trees such as birch, rhododendron, silver fir and juniper trees can be seen. Rhododendron show luminous colours in spring and monsoon seasons. The tree line in the region is at 4500m. Birch gives way to juniper and rhododendron scrubs. The park landscape is cut by deep rivers and glaciers. It can be segregated into four climatic zones:

Fauna

Endangered Animals : Endangered animals residing in this park are Snow Leopard, Musk Deer, Wild Yak, Red Panda and Himalayan Black Bear.Large Mammals : Big mammals commonly seen in the park are the Himalayan Tahr and Musk Deer. Other Mammals : Other mammals include the Himalayan Black Bear, Jackal, Weasels, Marten, Common Langur and the Himalayan Mousehare (Pika). Birds : The park is the residence of more than 118 species of birds. The most common ones are the Impeyan Pheasant (Danphe), Redbilled Chough, Blood pheasant and Yellow-billed Chough.

Conservation

The National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act (1973), the Himalayan National Park Regulations (1979) and the Buffer Zone Management guidelines (1996,1999) provide the legal basis for the protection of the flora and fauna in Himalayan ecology.

Main objectives of the management plan are to ensure the protection of wildlife, water and soil resources because of the Park's national and international importance; also to safeguard the interests of the Sherpa residents and the many others downstream in Nepal and India affected by the condition of the Dudh Kosi catchment.

People in buffer zone are not having good strata, they are farmers e.g. farmers of Pangboche have the problem of livelihood. They have got the problem of lack of fire wood because of quota system of fire wood per year. Only 15 days the forests in the buffer zone are opened for the farmers.They can collect only one Bhari fire wood per day. It is not sufficient for the people that is why they prepare cow dung’s as their fuel. So that sustainable agricultural farming has been decreasing due to lack of manure. Lodges and Hotels are collecting more fire wood . Military people are checking pro-poor but not wel-to-do.

Tourism is main part of the Sagarmatha National Park. Local people are getting money only from rice/food and lodges. No any local initiatives are for poor people. Hotels and Lodges are reserved from Kathmandu that is why money again goes to capital city not to local people. Conservation is possible if local people are participated .Tourism activities are not focused to poor people.

The households ,landholding households and population of cattle in the park and buffer zones are as follow:

Table 1: households with farmland and without farmland

S.N.

Group

Chaunrikharka

Khumjung

Namche

Total

1

Sherpa

33

23

20

413

2

Tamang

10

2

2

76

3

Rai

8

3

1

70

4

Kami

2

2

2

32

5

Damai

3

1

1

34

6

Magar

2

1

0

16

7

58

32

26

648

Source:Sagarmatha National Park Buffer Zone 2003.

Livestock population of three VDCs Chaunrikhaka, Namche and Khumjung are as follow:

Table 2:livestock population in vdcs

S.N.

VDCs

Yaks

Goats

Cows

Zopkyos

Horses

Total

1

Namche

597

43

522

4

21

1187

2

Khumjung

849

9

1105

10

18

1901

3

Chaunrikharka

358

100

852

157

78

1506

Source:DNWC 2004 ,Babarmahal Kathmandu.

Conservation Trials

Emerging participatory conservation initiatives

Following the success of the program’s implementation through the participation of local community members, HMGN has approved new policies regarding wildlife conservation through the participatory approach. The NPWC Act 1973 was amended for the fifth time in 2004. The new amendment includes provisions for wildlife farming, reproduction and research; elephant domestication; detailed specifications of the provision of buffer zones and specifications relating to the exchange of wildlife species with other countries. Following are the new policies recently approved by the government.

New policy on protected area management

HMGN has approved a policy in-execution regarding the handing over of management responsibilities of protected areas to interested INGOs/ NGOs or local communities. The objective is to ensure maximum participation of local people in sharing benefits from conservation activities, while contributing to biodiversity conservation and environmental

protection. The decision of HMGN to hand over the management responsibility is in

conformity with the Tenth Plan (2002-2007) and ensuring local people’s access to natural resources and equitable distribution of benefits.

Wildlife farming, reproduction and research policy

The Cabinet approved the “Wildlife farming, reproduction and research policy” in –execution 2060 on 28 August, 2003. The protected species that may be permitted for farming include gharial crocodile (Gavialis gangeticus), blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), impeyan pheasant (Lophophorus impejanus), crimson horned pheasant (Tragopan satyra) and cheer pheasant (Catreus wallichi). Other species included in the list are barking deer, spotted deer, sambar, rhesus monkey, hog deer, wild boar, snakes and all other bird species. The seed animals for farming can be obtained from the DNPWC and the permission fee ranges from five thousand to forty thousand rupees. Permission for the farming of protected species could be obtained from the MFSC, while DNPWC has been authorized to issue permission for other species

of wildlife.

Sagarmatha Community Agro-Forestry Project(SCAFP)

The WWF Nepal Program has initiated SCAFP in Sagarmatha National Park (SNP). The SCAFP is a multifaceted community-based conservation project, initiated in July 1996, to address the issue of deforestation in the Sagarmatha region. One of the major achievements of the project is the preparation of the BZ Management Plan for SNP. The other notable activity was the preparation of operational plans and statutes of four community forest user groups. Regular project activities such as nursery management, plantation and forest regeneration were undertaken by local CFUGs and Monastery Management Committees through financial grant support.

Conservation Critiques

Population growth is being the main problem for conservation. Because more population needed more food, fodder, fuel, firewood; which are supplied from the forest of National Park; so that forests are being deforested day by day.Sagarmatha National Park is at very high altitude, energy sources are lack there that is why more forests are in encroachment because of firewood; which is the major source of energy. The growth of forest in high altitude is very low on the other side consumption is increasing due to population and tourists. Flow of tourists is one major issue in conservation.

Table 3:electricity and other facilities in households

S.N

VDC

Electricity

Solar

LP Gas

1

Namche

77

4

4

2

Khumjung

65

10

1

3

Chaunrikharka

74

14

4

There are 648 households in Park area, only 253 households have got facilities of modern energy sources. Other 395households are using fire wood as major source of energy. The foresting is being encroaching for fodder, firewood, furniture, medicinal herbs, grazing cattle.

Conclusion

The safeguard forest resources through community management is highly necessary. Reducing solid waste pollution is essential due to high flow of tourists.Increase in basic and social infrastructures of the local people is very much necessary, that may preserve and protect cultural heritages. Ethnic economic opportunities should be increase through tourism.And strengthening of buffer zone groups to ensure their own stake implementation is most important for ecological and biological conservation of the park.

The conservation policy of Nepal has evolved from an early emphasis on species preservation and research with strict law enforcement practices to a more conciliatory and participatory approach. In buffer zone area of Sagarmatha National Park, there are two indigenous systems , they are 1.Di system and 2.Nawa syatem.The first system provides ideas and policies for Yaks,Sheeps and Chyangra grazing as well as management of fire wood.In this system old trees are referred to cut and prohibited to cut new ones. The second system is tourism management or trekking for tourists, who can goes and fair system. This system appointed guards for the forests.These systems are inactive. For conservation of flora and fauna these should activated.

It embarked upon a modern era of wildlife conservation with the enactment of the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act in 1973. His Majesty’s Government of Nepal has approved three new policies, namely: 1) wildlife farming, reproduction and research policy; 2) policy on management of domesticated elephants; and 3) the new policy on protected area management.These policies have placed local communities in the center of the conservation program. Changing policy into practice is a very sensitive task and guidelines related to the new policies should be prepared soon for effective wildlife management practices in collaboration with local communities. A number of community-based participatory programs have been implemented inside, outside and in the BZs of PAs. The Buffer Zone Management Model and the Landscape Approach to biodiversity conservation are successful approaches in the context of Nepal. Both approaches emphasize people’s participation in program design and implementation. The landscape approach to biodiversity conservation aims for representation of all distinct natural communities, maintenance of ecological and evolutionary processes that create and sustain biodiversity, maintenance of viable populations of species, ecosystem resilience to large-scale disturbances and long-term changes and promotion of sustainable livelihoods. The BZ Management approach aims at making local communities self-reliant in forest products by initiating community forests and reducing biotic pressure in the core areas. Experiences show hat people’s participation is essential to sustainable conservation. It is crucial to win the support and stewardship of the local people in wildlife conservation by implementing conservation programs along with community development activities aimed at improving their socio-economic conditions.

Over the past three centuries, about the half of the world’s forest cover has been removed to make way for crops lands, pastures and settlements. In 25 countries no forest remains,and in additional 29 countries , more than 90% of the forest have been lost(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005).So local people’s participation will certainly help on conservation of biodiversity into National Parks.

References

Tuladhar,A.R.(2010).Hands out Note on EESD 522,Conservation of Protected Area. Kathmandu University , Lalitpur.

Bhuju,U.R. et al( 2002) Biodiversity Resource Book,IUCN, Kathmandu

Groom,M.J.,Meffe,G.K.and Carrol,C.R.(2005).Focus on Primary Threats to Biodiversity,Principles of Conservation Biology,Sinauer Associates Inc,Massachusetts USA.

DNPWC (2004). Annual Report. His Majesty’s Government of Nepal.

WWF Nepal.( 2004). Annual Report. World Wildlife Fund Nepal Program.

NPWC Act. 1973. National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973. His Majesty’s Government of Nepal.

Sharma, U. R. (1999). Country Paper – Nepal.In: Oli, K.P. (ed.) Collaborative Management

of Protected Areas in the Asian Region. IUCN Nepal.

Tenth Plan.( 2002). Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007). His Majesty’s Government of Nepal.

Blaikie P., Cameron J., Seddon D., 1980. – Nepal in Crisis: Growth and Stagnation at the Periphery. New York, Oxford University Press.

Byers A., 1987. – “An Assessment of Landscape Change in the Khumbu Region of Nepal Using Repeat Photography”. Mountain Research and Development, vol. 7, n°1, pp. 77-81.

Dixit KM., Tüting L., 1986. – Bikas-Binas. Development, The Change in Life an Environment of the Himalaya. Kathmandu Ratna Book Distribution, pp. 382-393.

Post Modernism

Post-modernism

Post-modernism is closely related with constructivism and is development of constructivism. I t is complicated term or set of ideas, one that has only emerged as an area of academic study since the mid 1980s. The term post-modernism is hard to define because it is a concept that appears in a wide variety of discipline pr areas of study, including art, architecture, music, film, literature, sociology, communications, fashion and technology. It is hard to locate it temporally or historically, because it’s not clear exactly when postmodernism begins. Perhaps the easiest way to start thinking about postmodernism is by thinking about modernism, the movement from which postmodernism seems to grow or emerge.

Modernism has modes of definition, both of which are relevant to understanding postmodernism. It came from the aesthetic movement broadly labeled “modernism”. This movement in visual arts, music, literature, and drama, which rejected the old Victorian standards of how art should be made, consumed and what it should mean.

There are lots of questions to be asked about post-modernism, one of the most important is about the politics involved or more simply, is this movement toward fragmentation, provisionally, performance and instability something good or something bad?

On another level, However, Postmodernism seems to offer some alternatives to joining the global culture of consumption, where commodities and forms of knowledge are offered by forces far beyond any individual’s control. These alternatives focus on thinking of all action as necessarily local, limited and partial but nonetheless effective. Post-modernism politics offers a way to theorize local situations as fluid and unpredictable, though influenced by global trends. Hence, the motto might well be ‘think globally, act locally’ and don’t worry about any grand scheme or master plan.

Characteristics

The characteristics of the post-modernism are:-

a. Study or comprehension

In fact knowledge is knitted in the text for Postmodernist . If any text is studied without its formation, there is no stability in meaning. The possibility of meaning is within the text that the reader will try to fulfill it and that will not be competed in a single effort. The text will be polluted with different effort. That means language or text is polluted and impure.

b. Structuralism

According to post-modernism no knowledge is final and true. Every knowledge can be construct knowledge that can be embedded or destructed and that is not absolute and final as well. A set of idea is of one structure similarly another set will have another structure.

c. Knowledge or power

Postmodernists think that knowledge is power. The source of knowledge and its authenticity is researched and validated. There will be no sex discrimination. The order should made as male and female, eastern and western , sane and insane .

d. Certainty

Post modernists say that there will be no universality. Therefore, the small ethnic and cultural elements will be studied and diversity will be accepted in postmodernism. Instead of great hypothesis and principles, small diversified and contemporary power will be taken care of an academic exercises.

Modernism is the coincident of the reaction and dissatisfaction of the postmodernism. Both are combined together but they have their own identity. In fact, Modernism is the main root whereas post-modernism developed upon it. For example”- “Fawn” as a newly born fawn has its own existence but cannot leave its mother until “bread feeding”.

Phases

The first phase is associated with particular technological developments, namely the steam-driven motor and with a particular kind of aesthetics, namely, realism. The second phase occurred from the late nineteenth century until the mid-twentieth century. In this phase, monopoly capitalism, is associate with electric and internal combustion motors, and with modernism.

The third phase is where we are now and is multinational or consumer capitalism with emphasis placed on marketing, selling and consuming commodities, not on producing them that is associated with nuclear and electronic technologies and correlated with postmodernism.

Postmodern Educational Concepts

Constructivism is the main underlying learning theory in postmodern education. The basic idea is that all knowledge is invented or ‘constructed’ in the minds of people. Knowledge is not discovered, as modernists would claim. In other words, the ideas teachers teach and students learn do not correspond to “Reality”, they are merely human constructions. People create knowledge, ideas and language not because they are “true’, but they are useful. Therefore, reality is story. All reality exists, not objectively. Nobody’s version of reality can claim to have more authority that is objective because all versions are merely human creations.

“Another major feature of this tentative, relativist and instrumentalists (pragmatic) concept of knowledge is the equal worth of knowledge constructed by the learner, the teachers, or the scientists”. If no one’s knowledge is necessarily true, everything changes. Now the question of what counts as “knowledge” to be taught in the schools is not a matter of objective evidence or arguments, but rather a matter of power. Those who have the power can make sure their constructs are the ones that dominate the curriculum, while other opposing viewpoints are at least partially suppressed, ignored or “marginalized”.

Teachers in postmodernism

Since the focus of the classroom, in postmodernism education, becomes the student’s construction of knowledge, they shift away from a teacher-centered classroom to a more student-centered environment. “Rather than identifying the set of skills to be a got in children’s heads, attention shifts to establishing learning environments and science in social settings”.

The student-centered classroom in this context is likely to have minimal structure. It usually involves opportunities for social interaction, independent investigations and study, and the expression of creativity, as well as provision for different learning styles. There students create knowledge and are no longer forced to bow to the suppression of traditional objective “knowledge”. “The teacher would come to realize that what he or she presents as a “problem’ may be seen differently by the students. Consequently, the students may produce a sensible solution that makes no sense to the teacher. To be told that it is wrong is unhelpful and inhibiting or hamper because it disregards the effort the students put in.

At least under postmodern theory we are not guilty of an even worse crime according to postmodernism scholar, Johnella Butler, who warns, “The colonization of minds is characteristic of American education.” In order words, when dominant culture calls on minorities to speak classroom English, do math, history and science the white man’s way, they have acted in the old colonial role, just like earlier European who believed it was their responsibility to colonize non-white cultures and lands imposing European standards dress, religion and language on those cultures.

Characteristics of Modernism

Modernism gives emphasis on impressionism and subjectively in writing an emphasis on How seeing takes place, rather than what is perceived. It emphasizes on fragmented forms, discontinuous narratives, and random-seeming collages. A tendency toward reflexivity, or self-consciousness, about production of the work of art, so that each piece calls attention to its own status as a production, as something constructed and consumed in particular ways.

A rejection of elaborate formal aesthetics in favor of minimalist designs and a rejection of the distinction between “high” and “low” or popular culture, both in choice of materials used to produce art and in methods of displaying, distributing, and consuming art. Postmodernism, like modernism, follows most of these same ideas, rejecting boundaries between high and low forms of art, rejecting rigid genre distinctions, emphasizing pastiche, parody, irony and playfulness.

Third Semester

EESD 522 Conservation of Protected Areas

Protected areas in Nepal
Nepal has established a network of 16 protected areas of different categories which provides conservation to at least 80 of the country’s 118 ecosystems. Protected areas of Nepal can be classified into the following types:
1. National Parks: An area set a side for the conservation and management of the natural environment including wild animals, plants and landscapes together with their utilization.
2. Reserve: A general term including strict nature reserve, hunting reserve and wildlife reserves.
Nature Strict Reserve: An area of ecological or other significance, set aside for scientific study.
Wildlife Reserve: An area set aside for the conservation and management of wildlife resources and their habitat.
Hunting Reserve: An area set aside for conservation and management of wildlife to provide hunting for legal hunters.
3. Conservation Area: An area set aside for the conservation of the natural environment and the natural resources, for its utilization in a balanced way on the basis of an integrated management plan.

4. Buffer Zone: An area designated surrounding national parks and reserves in order to provide for the use of forest products to local people.
Chitwan National Park
Langtang National Park
Makalu Narun Naitonal Park
Shey-Phoksundo National Park
Khaptad National Park
Royal Bardiya National Park
Rara National Park
Sagarmatha National Park
Parsa Wildlife Reserve
Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve
[[Royal Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve]]
Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve
[[Annapurna Conservation Area]]

Monday, May 11, 2026

Quality Education

१० भाद्रको दैवी प्रकोप

खोजौ

Post Modernism

Protected areas in Nepal